Status migrainosus …

Headache & Pain

Updated 03.21.2024
Released 05.06.1994
Expires For CME 03.21.2027

Status migrainosus

Authors: Shuhan Zhu MD, Minali Nigam MD

See Contributor Disclosures

Editor: Stephen D Silberstein MD

Status migrainosus

In This Article

Quick Link

Introduction

Overview

Status migrainosus is defined as an attack of severe migraine lasting more than 72 hours accompanied by debilitating symptoms and is not attributable to another disorder. For patients presenting with the first or worst prolonged headache, a thorough neurologic evaluation with collateral imaging or spinal fluid sampling is indicated to assess for secondary causes of pain. In a patient with diagnosis of migraine without a secondary attributable cause of prolonged headaches, focus should be on swift and effective treatment with the primary aim of aborting the migraine.

Historical note and terminology

The term “status migrainosus” was first used by Taverner in 1978 to describe “severe and prolonged, or frequently repeated migraine” (85).

The most recent diagnostic criteria for status migrainosus according to the 2018 third edition of the International Classification of Headache Disorders is (ICHD-3) is reviewed below (01):

Table 1. International Headache Society Diagnostic Criteria for Status Migrainosus

Description: A debilitating migraine attack lasting for more than 72 hours
Diagnostic criteria:
A. A headache attack fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Occurring in a patient with 1.1 Migraine without aura and/or 1.2 Migraine with aura, and typical of previous attacks except for its duration and severity
C. Both of the following characteristics:
	1. Unremitting for more than 72 hours 2. Pain and/or associated symptoms are debilitating
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis

Clinical manifestations

Presentation and course

Status migrainosus, by definition, must occur in a patient with underlying diagnosis of migraine. Therefore, physicians should review the patient’s history for symptoms of migraine as part of the diagnostic process.

Typically, patients with status migrainosus report a headache that is similar to their usual migraines (with or without aura) with the exception of prolonged duration of pain and associated symptoms (eg, nausea, vomiting, photophobia, phonophobia, osmophobia) with refractoriness to their usual treatments. Precipitants of status migrainosus include medication overuse, menstruation/other hormonal changes, stress, dietary factors (eg, alcohol intake or fasting), anxiety, and depression. A review of possible triggers is warranted to aid diagnosis and treatment.

In those with migraine with aura, the aura itself should be similar to the patient’s usual auras; entirely new or prolonged auras different from the patient’s usual experiences should warrant further investigation into potential secondary causes (eg, seizure, intracranial mass, stroke). Pain that is drastically different in character or quality from patients’ usual migraines should always raise the clinician’s suspicion for secondary causes of headache.

When an attack of migraine headache lasts more than 72 hours, it is defined as status migrainosus. When it lasts much longer, it may become designated as chronic (previously known as transformed) migraine. In this process of transformation, headache frequency increases, and the historical characteristics used to differentiate migraine from episodic tension-type headache diminish as pain intensity and associated migrainous features become less prominent. No clear distinction is made between chronic migraine and prolonged status migrainosus because no upper time limit is given to status migrainosus. Both are intractable headaches and are often associated with abortive medication overuse and comorbid psychological conditions.

Patients seeking medical care during a bout of status migrainosus have typically exhausted first-line home-based treatments without response and require a higher level of care.

Prognosis and complications

With adequate treatment, most patients with status migrainosus can achieve pain reduction.

When an attack of migraine headache lasts more than 72 hours, it is defined as status migrainosus. When it lasts much longer and occurs on greater than or equal to 15 days of the month for more than 3 months, it is designated as chronic migraine (Table 2). No clear distinction is made between chronic migraine and prolonged status migrainosus because no upper time limit is given to status migrainosus. Both are intractable headaches and are often associated with social/occupational impairment.

The yearly rate of transformation from episodic to chronic migraine has been estimated to be approximately 2.5%, with risk factors of high baseline attack frequency, older age, obesity, stressful life events, mood disorders, and use of certain medications such as barbiturates and opiates (05; 50; 59). Patients with chronic migraine are more likely to suffer socioeconomic impacts, more psychiatric and medical comorbidities, reduced quality of life, and lower social and occupational function (54).

Status migrainosus and chronic migraine are the most frequent complications of migraine, but other rare complications include persistent aura without infarction, migrainosus infarction, and migraine aura-triggered seizure.

Table 2. International Classification of Headache Disorders 3rd Edition Diagnostic Criteria for Chronic Migraine

Description: Headache occurring on 15 or more days per month for more than 3 months, which, on at least 8 days of month, has the features of migraine headache.
Diagnostic criteria:
A. Headache (migraine-like or tension-type-like) on ≥15 days per month for >3 months, and fulfilling criteria B and C
B. Occurring in a patient who has had at least five attacks fulfilling criteria B to D for 1.1 migraine without aura and/or criteria B and C for 1.2 migraine with aura
C. On ≥ 8 days per month for > 3 months, fulfilling any of the following:
	1. Criteria C and D for 1.1 Migraine without aura
	2. Criteria B and C for 1.2 Migraine with aura
	3. Believed by the patient to be migraine at onset and relieved by a triptan or ergot derivative
D. Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis

Clinical vignette

A 33-year-old woman presented to the local emergency department with a severe right-sided headache for the past 4 days associated with nausea and repeated vomiting.

Sumatriptan injections, which usually successfully treat her headaches, only provided temporary reduction of pain and the over-the-counter medication did not help at all. Her last sumatriptan injection was 36 hours prior to arrival in the emergency department.

She has a history of episodic headaches that usually occur near menstruation and are accompanied by nausea, vomiting, photophobia, and phonophobia. This headache is typical of her usual headaches, but of longer duration and increased severity. Her father died in the past week, and she has had poor sleep and increased level of stress surrounding this event.

A thorough neurologic examination and a head CT were normal. The patient was treated with intravenous dihydroergotamine and metoclopramide. Her headache subsided, and she was sent home the next morning.

Comment. This is a fictitious case.

Biological basis

Etiology and pathogenesis

Status migrainosus is one of the many clinical manifestations of migraine disorder and its etiology is related to the underlying causes of migraine itself. Migraine is a polygenetic syndrome with non-Mendelian inheritance and significant gene-environment interactions (72). A comprehensive review of the pathogenesis of migraine is provided in a separate MedLink Neurology article on migraine. Here, the discussion is focused on status migrainosus.

An internet-based survey of migraineurs’ self-reported migraine triggers showed factors of stress, lack of sleep, diet, hormonal changes, and other environmental factors as triggers for increased migraines (62).

Patients with frequent or severe headache are at risk for escalating use of analgesics, opioids, ergotamine, or a combination thereof, which can lead to medication overuse headache (MOH). There is no universal threshold at which individual patients may develop medication overuse headache. As a general guideline, nonspecific analgesics should be kept to less than or equal to 15 days of the month, and triptans should be limited to less than or equal to 9 days a month (51; 77). In the American Migraine Prevalence and Prevention Study, compared to participants using acetaminophen, participants using barbiturates (OR = 2.06, 95% CI = 1.3-3.1) or opioids (OR = 1.98, 95% C I= 1.4-2.2) were more likely to have transformation of episodic migraine to chronic migraine within 1 year (05). Stopping the symptomatic medication usually causes withdrawal symptoms, a period of increased headache, and eventually headache improvement in many, but not all, patients (78).

Although medication overuse headache is a generally accepted idea, there are some controversies as patients may very well have frequent migraine independent of any medication use, and invoking medication overuse headache may alienate some patients who perceive their actions are blamed for the headaches rather than the disease.

Epidemiology

Migraine itself is a common disorder affecting approximately 17% of women and 6% of men based on a 120,000-person survey as part of the American Migraine Prevalence and Prevention Study (05). A portion of migraineurs, amounting to 2% of the general population, have chronic migraine (54).

The prevalence of status migrainosus, as a separate entity from chronic migraine, is not reported. Patients with high headache burden are at higher risk for developing status migrainosus, but it can also occur in those with infrequent or well controlled migraines, particularly if precipitated by triggers such as illness or stress.

Status migrainosus lacks a clear epidemiological profile (11). One 11-year retrospective analysis of a French tertiary headache center (n = 8821 cases) reported a status migrainosus prevalence of 3% (02) whereas a multicenter study (n = 253 cases) reported a status migrainosus prevalence of 24.3% in those with aura and 20.6% in those without aura (70).

In a large retrospective cohort study of youth ranging from 1- to 26-years-old (n = 5316 cases) with migraine, a history of status migrainosus was present in 559 (10.5%) of the patients and the strongest factors associated with status migrainosus were older age and medication overuse headache (68). Patients with status migrainosus had greater odds of poor short-term prognosis (defined as increase in four or more headache days per month) and greater odds of follow-up visit to infusion center for acute headache.

The authors proposed as a neurobiological model that status migrainosus patients have a tendency for sensitization of trigeminovascular pain pathways. This mechanism was supported by their observation that older patients and those with delayed diagnosis and treatment had higher odds of status migrainosus, suggesting a link between repeated exposures to migraine attacks, sensitization, and status migrainosus risk over time. The authors also observed an association between migraine with aura and status migrainosus, and given that migraine with aura may be associated with cutaneous allodynia, the authors proposed the association between aura and status migrainosus can again be explained by sensitization (68).

Differential diagnosis

The differential diagnosis for a severe and prolonged headache is numerous. As there is no confirmatory laboratory or imaging test for migraine, clinical history is key to narrowing the differential diagnosis and deciding on appropriate investigations. In Table 3, the differential diagnosis based on the presenting characteristics is reviewed.

Table 3. Differential Diagnosis of Status Migrainosus*

Acute single headache
	• Subarachnoid hemorrhage • Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome • First attack of migraine • Acute glaucoma • Hypertensive encephalopathy • Meningitis • Pituitary apoplexy • Postconcussive or posttraumatic syndrome • Retroclival hematomas • Sinusitis • Spontaneous intracranial hypotension • Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis • Systemic infection
Acute recurrent headache
	• Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome • Cerebral tumors • Cerebrovascular insufficiency • Idiopathic intracranial hypertension • Intermittent hydrocephalus • Migraine • Subarachnoid hemorrhage
Subacute headache (days or weeks)
	• Brain abscess • Pseudotumor cerebri • Subdural hematoma • Temporal arteritis (in elderly) • Chronic daily headache (months or years) • Analgesic rebound • Chronic tension-type headache • Psychiatric state • Tumor
*(List is not all inclusive.)

In a series of 3799 patients who were seen over a 3-month period at an emergency headache center in Paris, 3299 patients (86.3%) were diagnosed with primary headaches; 244 (6.4%) had secondary headaches, 38 (1%) cranial neuralgias, and 218 patients (5.7%) had no precise diagnosis (21). Sinusitis was the most frequently reported cause of secondary headache (66 patients, 1.7%), followed by post-traumatic headache (58 patients, 1.5%) and CSF hypotension (24 patients, 0.6%). Vascular disorders were detected in only 20 patients (0.5%), including subarachnoid hemorrhage (7), cervical artery dissection (5), and cerebral venous thrombosis (2).

Serious vascular conditions were rare but often misleading, presenting only with headache and without the other classical signs of these conditions. New or changed headaches should always prompt a careful history and exam in addition to neuroimaging study or CSF studies before diagnosing a primary headache.

Acute headache. The first or worst attack of apparent status migrainosus requires careful history, examination, and other appropriate studies to assess for secondary causes of headache. Changes in awareness or cognition are atypical for migraine and always require further assessment. Older patients presenting with their first headache are less likely to have migraine and should be evaluated for underlying inflammatory disease, CNS tumors, or infection.

The first or worst attack of migraine may be difficult to differentiate from a subarachnoid hemorrhage, particularly if the pain is of acute onset. Meningitis or meningoencephalitis is possible if the headache is associated with a febrile illness, stiff neck, and changes in cognition; under these circumstances, neuroimaging and lumbar puncture can be used to confirm the diagnosis. Nonbacterial (aseptic) meningitis may be more difficult to diagnose and can mimic status migrainosus.

Patients with acute purulent sinusitis are usually acutely ill and febrile and with localized pain and tenderness. This disorder is more difficult to diagnose when it involves the sphenoid sinus, which is not accessible to direct clinical examination and may not be seen clearly on routine radiologic examination.

Spontaneous internal carotid or vertebral artery dissection can cause unilateral headache. In the case of carotid dissections, pain is located in the orbital, periorbital, and frontal regions. With vertebral dissections, pain is more frequently located in the cervical region (73). The pain is usually moderate to severe and steady or throbbing in nature. A history of head or neck trauma (even if minor), bruit, or Horner syndrome may assist in the diagnosis of vascular dissection. Focal cerebral symptoms (transient ischemic attack or stroke) can precede the headache but frequently follow it by as long as 2 weeks. Imaging of the cervical arteries with CTA, MRA, or traditional arteriography should be performed based on clinical suspicion.

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome is a recently characterized syndrome that can cause nonaneurysmal thunderclap headache. In a prospective study of patients with nonaneurysmal thunderclap headaches treated in a hospital in the Netherlands, 8.8% of those who consented for follow-up were subsequently diagnosed via vascular imaging to have reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (33).

The presentation of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome commonly consists of recurrent thunderclap that may be triggered by activity or occur spontaneously over the course of a week with a female predominance (22).

The vascular constriction is thought to occur due to dysregulation of cerebral arterial tone and has been associated with disorders affecting autonomic balance (eg, catecholamine secreting tumors), illicit drugs (eg, cocaine, amphetamines, cannabis), alpha-sympathomimetic drugs (eg, pseudoephedrine), vasoconstrictive drugs (eg, dihydroergotamine), hormonal changes (eg, pregnancy, postpartum status), and severe stress (eg, surgery or trauma). The large vessel vasoconstriction associated with reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome may not be angiographically visible until several weeks after onset of clinical symptoms; there must be a high clinical suspicion based on history in order to correctly follow and diagnose the condition (22). For those suspected of having reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome, follow-up with vascular imaging via MRA, CTA, conventional angiography, or transcranial Doppler ultrasound may be necessary (08; 73).

Although most patients with reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome had spontaneous resolution of angiographic vasoconstriction in weeks to months, a significant percentage suffered ischemic complications (transient ischemic attack or infarct at 16% and 4% respectively), cerebral hemorrhage (6%), posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (9%), and seizure (3%) (22). When reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome is clinically suspected, it is imperative to avoid vasoconstrictive medications such as triptans or ergotamines, which worsen the disease process and increase the risk of complications such as ischemic stroke.

Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri) may occur with or without papilledema and mimic either migraine or tension-type headache. Patients typically have risk factors of female gender, younger age, and obesity. The presence of these risk factors, a history of pulsatile tinnitus, and transient visual obscurations with Valsalva are suggestive of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Physical findings may include papilledema or cranial nerve palsies. The diagnosis is made with a spinal tap that is performed with the patient lying down either in the lateral decubitus or prone position (not seated). Opening pressures greater than 25 cm of water may be consistent with this diagnosis (26).

Cerebral sinus venous thrombosis most commonly affects women aged 20 to 50 years. Risk factors include oral contraceptives, pregnancy, HRT, hereditary thrombophilia, malignancy, and other systemic diseases. In a retrospective cohort study, all patients exhibited at least one red flag, most frequently abnormal neurologic exam (79%), other neurologic symptom (68%), headache with alarm feature (63%), or recognizable risk factor (47%) (29). MRI with MR venography is the most commonly recommended, CT venography with contrast is a reliable alternative, and angiography is reserved if MRI/CT is inconclusive, dural AV fistula is suspected, or endovascular intervention is required (60). The mainstay of treatment is heparin or LMWH with bridge to heparin.

Subacute headache. A new headache that has been present for days or weeks may be the beginning of a chronic daily headache or prolonged status migrainosus. The differential diagnosis is, of course, quite broad, and appropriate medical and neurologic investigation is warranted.

Chronic nonprogressive headache. Chronic daily headache may be related to a primary headache disorder such as migraine or tension type headache or secondary disorder such as idiopathic intracranial hypertension, systemic disease (eg, sleep apnea), or underlying psychopathology.

Chronic migraine. Chronic migraine may evolve from episodic migraine through status migrainosus. The symptoms of chronic migraine include the progressive intensification of severe, debilitating pain accompanied by the usual characteristics of acute migraine (nausea, vomiting, light sensitivity, etc.) functional impairment. Dehydration, electrolyte alterations, autonomic disturbances, and emotional despair are frequently present.

Chronic tension-type headache. Chronic daily headache may also develop in patients with a history of episodic tension-type headache. The headaches are often diffuse and bilateral, frequently involve the posterior aspect of the head and neck, and may have some migrainous features. Due to the overlapping clinical features of tension type headache and migraine, patients may meet criteria for both disorders.

Management

Many patients present to the hospital emergency department for evaluation and treatment of severe persistent headache. The initial and paramount goal of the emergency department team is to establish whether there is a serious or life-threatening secondary cause of the head pain. Assuming an appropriate and thorough evaluation has taken place in the emergency department, the next decision is to identify the most appropriate venue for continued treatment: the emergency department, inpatient hospitalization, outpatient treatment, or some combination thereof.

As patients often present to the emergency room for initial treatment after exhausting home treatments, physicians may use this as an opportunity for robust treatment with intravenous medications to reduce pain and disability.

The treatment of status migrainosus often takes place in the emergency department initially, with a goal of breaking the pain cycle or decreasing the severity significantly. The emergency department staff may choose to send a patient home with a specific abortive therapy for the head pain. Prescriptions for opioids or butalbital are not recommended. Lifestyle changes, prophylactic medications, or comorbid psychological conditions may be broached during the emergency department visit and should be further addressed by outpatient physicians.

Acute inpatient hospitalization for the treatment of migraine should be considered in the appropriate circumstances (see Table 4), and the goals of admission should be clearly defined. In addition to treatment of severe pain, hospitalization should address concurrent medication overuse, particularly of drugs containing butalbital or opiates, as the detoxification progress can be difficult and requires symptomatic treatment to prevent dehydration from intractable nausea or vomiting, seizures, or other severe acute withdrawal effects (Table 5).

Table 4. Hospital-Based Treatment Options

The principles of treatment for status migrainosus include the following:

	(1) Fluid and electrolyte replacement (if indicated)
	(2) Drug detoxification
	(3) Intravenous pharmacotherapy to control pain
	(4) Treatment of associated symptoms of nausea and vomiting
	(5) Concurrent implementation of migraine prophylaxis (if indicated)

Criteria for hospital-based treatment include severe, intractable headache accompanied by (1) dehydration (requiring parenteral therapy for pain interruption); (2) dependence on analgesic or ergotamine medication; or (3) significant comorbid neurologic, medical, or psychiatric illnesses (78).

Table 5. Detoxification guidelines

	(1) Fluid replacement for 24 to 48 hours
	(2) Oral ergotamine tartrate can be discontinued abruptly if intravenous dihydroergotamine is administered. Otherwise, it should be tapered over 2 to 3 days.
	(3) Analgesics not containing opiates or barbiturates can be stopped abruptly.
	(4) Combined analgesics containing barbiturate should be discontinued gradually, particularly if there has been daily use for extended period of time to prevent withdrawal syndromes. If rapid discontinuation is more appropriate, then phenobarbital may be used to prevent withdrawal.
	(5) Opioid withdrawal must be carried out slowly or through replacement with methadone and subsequent rapid taper. Side effects can be reduced by giving clonidine hydrochloride, phenobarbital, or a benzodiazepine derivative (65).
(78)

Treatment of status migrainosus should be tailored to the patient’s history, medication tolerances, presence of potential contraindications, and responses from past treatments. Table 6 reviews the general strategies and classes of medications that are frequently used in combination to treat status migrainosus.

Table 6. Infusion-Based Treatment of Status Migrainosus

(1) IV fluids
(2) Pretreat with:
	• prochlorperazine (5 to 10 mg IV) or • metoclopramide (10 mg IV)
(3) Treat with:
	• dihydroergotamine (0.5 to 1.0 mg IV)
(4) If headache persists:
	• in 8 hours give additional dihydroergotamine (0.5 to 1.0 mg IV)
(5) Additions:
	• ketorolac (30 to 60 mg intramuscularly or IV) • valproate (500 to 1000 mg IV) • diphenhydramine (25 to 50 mg IV) • magnesium sulfate (1 gram IV push)
(6) Alternatives:
	• dexamethasone (4 to 10 mg IV) • chlorpromazine (2.5 to 12.5 mg IV after 250 cc saline bolus)
	or
	• droperidol (0.3125 to 2.5 mg IV) • opioids - rare use

Intravenous dihydroergotamine. Intravenous dihydroergotamine is a mainstay in the inpatient treatment of migraine because it has been shown to be a safe and effective means of terminating a migraine attack (71; 24; 63).

Repetitive intravenous doses of dihydroergotamine were first shown to be effective by Raskin in 1986 with 49 of 55 patients (89%) being headache-free after 48 hours. After hospitalization for treatment with intravenous dihydroergotamine, patients may be able to maintain the significant improvements, particularly if medication overuse and detoxification are concurrently addressed.

Hospitalization is typically necessary for treatment with repetitive intravenous dihydroergotamine as it is given every 8 hours and generally requires aggressive premedications to reduce risk of nausea/vomiting as side effects and close followup for associated side effects (eg, QT prolongation).

The patient is pretreated with metoclopramide (10 mg IV) and then given dihydroergotamine (0.5 mg IV). If the patient has no nausea and the headache persists, another 0.5 mg of dihydroergotamine is given. If the patient's headache is not gone, 0.5 to 1 mg of dihydroergotamine is continued every 8 hours. If nausea develops, the dose is decreased, and the antiemetic adjusted or increased. Both drugs are continued as needed, the dihydroergotamine every 8 hours until the patient is headache-free, at which time it is tapered and discontinued.

Standard dosage. Following 10 mg of intravenous metoclopramide, dihydroergotamine 0.5 mg is administered intravenously. Subsequent doses are adjusted based on pain relief and side effects. Most patients eventually take dihydroergotamine 1.0 mg intravenously every 8 hours (71).

Contraindications. Pregnancy, coronary artery disease, prinzmetal angina, peripheral vascular disease, prolonged aura, hemiplegic migraine, and poorly controlled hypertension.

Main drug interactions. Administration with other potential vasoconstrictors (triptans, ergots, isometheptene, nicotine, and beta-blockers) may potentiate the vasoconstrictor effect of dihydroergotamine. Macrolide antibiotics, especially erythromycin, may increase plasma levels of dihydroergotamine.

Main side effects. Noncardiac chest pain, neck or trunk pressure, head or body warmth, nausea, leg pain, diarrhea.

Special points. Dihydroergotamine must be given slowly (intravenous push over 2 to 3 minutes or intravenous drip over 10 to 15 minutes) to reduce nausea, flushing, and chest symptoms. Diluting with an equal volume of saline reduces side effects.

Cost and cost-effectiveness. Dihydroergotamine is moderately expensive. Dihydroergotamine is moderately expensive; disturbances in manufacture supply has led to costs fluctuations in recent years.

Pediatric consideration. Children under 25 kg or under age 9 may be given dihydroergotamine at 0.5 mg intravenous every 8 hours) (39).

Neuroleptics. Multiple drugs from the neuroleptic class have been used for the treatment of acute migraine. Of this class, intravenous prochlorperazine has the highest level of evidence (76; 67).

Intravenous prochlorperazine was shown to be vastly superior to placebo (38) in a double-blinded, randomized control trial (n = 42 each arm) with 74% of the treatment group reporting complete headache relief at 60 minutes compared to 14% of the placebo group. Additionally, intravenous prochlorperazine 10 mg combined with intravenous diphenhydramine 12.5 mg was shown to be superior to subcutaneous sumatriptan 6 mg for migraine relief at 80 minutes (43). Prochlorperazine infusion over 15 minutes versus bolus push over 2 minutes was shown to have similar rates of side effects (12). A meta-analysis of 11 moderate- to high-quality randomized control trials statistically bolstered the utility of prochlorperazine for acute migraine in the emergency department. In the meta-analysis, the odds of 10 mg IV of prochlorperazine aborting acute migraine attacks were nearly 3 times higher than the odds with metoclopramide and nearly 4 times higher than the odds with other standard migraine therapies including sumatriptan, ketorolac, and sodium valproate (32). Fewer patients in the prochlorperazine group required rescue analgesia.

Prochlorperazine has also been shown to be effective in children; Kabbouche and colleagues (40) studied prochlorperazine in 20 consecutive children with acute migraine and showed that 95% improved at 3 hours and 90% remained headache-free at 24 hours.

Neuroleptics are more effective when given intravenously compared to suppository intramuscular forms. However, when intravenous access is limited, rectal prochlorperazine 25 mg may be an effective alternative (37).

Metoclopramide is also frequently used for the acute treatment of migraine, though it has not been as intensively investigated as prochlorperazine through randomized trials. In a blinded, randomized control study, 67% of treatment patients reported pain relief at 1 hour compared to 19% of placebo patients (86).

In a randomized, controlled trial comparing intravenous prochlorperazine and metoclopramide, prochlorperazine 10 mg was superior to metoclopramide 10 mg (13). Intravenous prochlorperazine 10 mg and metoclopramide 20 mg were similarly effective in another trial (25).

Intravenous haloperidol has also been shown to be superior to placebo in a double-blind, randomized trial with 16 of 20 (80%) treatment patients reporting significant pain relief and only 3 of 20 (15%) placebo patients reporting significant pain relief 1 to 3 hours after the infusion. Although patients receiving haloperidol had better pain relief, they were also more likely to have bothersome sedation or akathisia (35).

Droperidol, a butyrophenone with strong neuroleptic and antiemetic properties, has also been used for treatment of acute migraine. In an open, ambulatory infusion center study, intravenous droperidol provided significant relief (no pain to mild pain) for 22 of 25 patients with status migrainosus, although sedation and akathisia were common (87).

In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study, 305 patients with moderate to severe migraine received intramuscular droperidol at doses of 2.75 mg, 5.5 mg, and 8.25 mg (80). At 2 hours, those treated with any dose of droperidol reported significantly higher rates of headache improvement (81% to 87% with mild pain or no pain) compared to those receiving placebo (57%). The frequency of headache recurrence (within 24 hours) for patients initially responding by 2 hours was lower in patients treated with droperidol than with placebo, but differences were not statistically significant. A significantly greater percentage of patients receiving droperidol also reported the elimination of migraine-associated symptoms (nausea, vomiting, photophobia, and phonophobia) than those who received placebo. Although most adverse events were mild or moderate, anxiety, akathisia, and somnolence were rated as severe in 30% of patients who experienced those symptoms. Hypotension was uncommon. No patients had QT prolongation. This study suggested the use of diphenhydramine or benztropine to manage droperidol-induced akathisia.

Intravenous droperidol 2.5 mg and prochlorperazine 10 mg were found to have similar efficacy for acute headache relief with similar rates of akathisia in a blinded, randomized study of emergency department patients (88).

Chlorpromazine at 0.1 mg/kg can also be used effectively for the treatment of pain and associated symptoms in acute migraine (03), although its side effects of drowsiness and postural hypotension may require extra caution.

Intravenous neuroleptics may be used as primary therapy or as adjunct treatment for migraine and its associated features of nausea. If intravenous access is limited, oral, rectal, or intramuscular forms may be used. Patients receiving neuroleptics must be monitored carefully for hypotension, sedation, dystonic reactions, and akathisia. Use of diphenhydramine with neuroleptics may mitigate the development of akathisia or dystonia. Orthostatic hypotension may be reduced by intravenous fluids and supination post infusion.

Standard dosage. Prochlorperazine, 25 mg rectally every 6 hours as necessary, 5 to 10 mg intramuscularly or intravenously every 8 hours; chlorpromazine 25 mg orally every hour as necessary, max 5 doses per day, 12.5 to 25 mg intravenously after 250 cc saline bolus; and droperidol 1.25 to 2.5 mg intravenously every 6 hours or 1.25 to 2.5 mg intravenously every hour, maximum 10 mg in 24 hours (87).

Contraindications. Known hypersensitivity to agent, prolonged QTC.

Main drug interactions. Other sedative medication, other drugs that might cause QT prolongation on EKG.

Main side effects. Dystonia, akathisia, sedation, hypotension, tachycardia, restless leg syndrome, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, cholestatic jaundice, rarely QT prolongation. Extrapyramidal side effects, especially akathisia, may be particularly common in daily headache patients.

Special points. Akathisia must be dealt with promptly.

Cost and cost-effectiveness. Some intravenous neuroleptics are relatively expensive; however, the cost is low compared to the cost of an emergency room visit or hospitalization.

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDS). Ketorolac is frequently used in conjunction with neuroleptics, triptans, or dihydroergotamine in the treatment of migraine due to its availability in intravenous and intramuscular forms.

In a double blind, randomized control study comparing intravenous ketorolac (n = 13) against intranasal sumatriptan (n = 16), ketorolac was found to be superior to the triptan at reducing pain score 1 hour after administration (61). Additional comparison studies of intravenous ketorolac against agents such as meperidine, chlorpromazine, or prochlorperazine generally showed similar pain relief efficacy (82).

Standard dosage. Ketorolac can be given as a 60 mg intramuscular injection or a 30 mg intravenous injection. The total daily dose of parenteral ketorolac is recommended to be 60 mg or less. Due to the risk of gastrointestinal and renal adverse effects, parenteral ketorolac should not be given for more than 3 days in a row.

Contraindications. Renal impairment, gastrointestinal perforation or ulcer, gastrointestinal bleeding, suspected intracranial bleeding, hemorrhagic diathesis, inflammatory bowel disease, pregnancy, use of anticoagulants, concurrent use of probenecid, or pentoxifylline.

Main drug interactions. Other nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (ibuprofen, naproxen, etc.).

Main side effects. Upset stomach, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, renal impairment, bleeding.

Cost and cost-effectiveness. Injected forms of ketorolac are generally inexpensive, although insurance limitations may apply.

Corticosteroids. Parenteral corticosteroids, either alone or in combination with other symptomatic medications, have been used to treat severe, resistant headache. Dexamethasone 4 mg in conjunction with a triptan and a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug will decrease recurrence in a limited population (45).

A comprehensive meta-analysis by Woldeamanuel and colleagues in 2015 showed reduced risk of headache recurrence with generally tolerable adverse side effects (90). Although steroids may be effective acute treatment, physicians should be aware of the long-term adverse effects (immunosuppression, adrenal insufficiency, Cushing syndrome, osteonecrosis, osteoporosis, etc.) and should monitor/limit cumulative exposure.

Standard dosage. Methylprednisolone sodium succinate 100 to 200 mg IV q 12° for 3 days. Outpatient oral dosing typical dose range is prednisone 40 to 60 mg for 6 to 8 days.

Contraindications. Active peptic ulcer disease, severe diabetes or hypertension, acute viral or other systemic infection, or psychosis.

Main drug interactions. May cause hypokalemia if given with NSAIDs. May increase the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding if given with ethacrynic acid, furosemide, or thiazide diuretics.

Main side effects. Aseptic necrosis of femoral head or occasionally other bones is the main concern (risk factors are prolonged duration of use and high doses, cigarette smoking and ethanol consumption; earliest reports after continuous use of prednisone occurs at approximately 1 month), fluid retention, nausea, insomnia, mood variability, hypertension, hyperglycemia, or hypokalemia.

Cost and cost-effectiveness. Methylprednisolone sodium succinate is inexpensive.

Anticonvulsants. The FDA has officially approved valproate sodium for the prophylactic treatment of migraine headaches. An intravenous form of this agent, which is primarily used for the acute treatment of seizures, may be a safe, effective, and well-tolerated treatment for intractable migraine (66; 23; 74). An open study using intravenous valproate 300 mg in 61 patients showed the treatment was generally well tolerated and significantly reduced pain in more than half of treated attacks (57).

There is one comparative study of intravenous sodium valproate 500 mg verus prochlorperazine 10 mg, which showed that 79% of those treated with valproate required additional rescue treatment compared to 25% of those treated with prochlorperazine (83).

Standard dosage. Intravenous valproate at 300 to 500 mg.

Contraindications. Pregnancy, liver disease.

Main drug interactions. Coadministration of valproate and phenobarbital may rarely result in sedation and reversible coma. Aspirin may increase free valproate concentrations, and many drugs (phenytoin, carbamazepine, phenobarbital) increase valproate clearance. Rare cases of hepatic failure have occurred (usually in young children 2 years old or in patients receiving multiple anticonvulsants).

Main side effects. Sedation, dizziness, tremor.

Cost and cost-effectiveness. IV valproate is moderately expensive.

Other intravenous acute treatment. Intravenous lignocaine was used in 19 chronic daily headache patients, three of whom had status migrainosus (34). Five infusions were given to those three patients, with four of the infusions relieving headache. Another study by Williams and Stark in 2003 focused on 71 patients with chronic daily headache who were admitted for lidocaine infusion (also received other treatments such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during admission) (89). After an average of 8.7 days of treatment, 90% of these patients noted improved headache, with 70% reporting improved pain at 6-month follow-up.

In a case series of 68 patients with chronic daily headache (mostly chronic migraine) who were treated with intravenous lidocaine, 57% had some improvement and 25% were able to be pain-free after an average of 8.5 inpatient days. Of note, the patients in this study also received other treatments such as intravenous dihydroergotamine (56). Major side effects of intravenous lidocaine reported were nausea, hallucinations, lightheadedness, tachycardia, tremor, and blood pressure changes (hypotension or hypertension).

A meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials revealed those who received intranasal lidocaine had a lower pain severity at 5 minutes and 15 minutes and less frequent need for rescue medication than the control group of nasal saline (09). However, intranasal lidocaine did not provide an add-on effect in patients who also received an antiemetic. Adverse effects were limited to local symptoms of burning or numbness in the nose. Intranasal lidocaine may block the sphenopalatine ganglion, inactivating intracranial nociceptors that contribute to cerebral vasodilatation.

A double-blind study of repeated intranasal capsaicin in eight patients with chronic migraine (27) demonstrated improvement between 50% and 80% in the four patients in the active group.

Several studies have suggested a role for intravenous magnesium sulfate in the treatment of acute migraine attacks. Demirkaya and colleagues (15) and Bigal and colleagues (04) performed randomized, placebo-controlled studies in acute migraines and demonstrated significant relief. Mauskop and colleagues reported that IV magnesium was successful in treating menstrual migraine in patients with low interictal free ionized magnesium levels (58). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of emergency room patients with migraine showed that magnesium given as an adjunctive treatment with metoclopramide appeared to be less effective than metoclopramide alone (14); there are no other similar studies to verify this finding.

In a retrospective study, nine doses of diphenhydramine given over 3 days significantly reduced headache level but did not appear as effective as dihydroergotamine with metoclopramide (81). As dihydroergotamine is contraindicated for some patients, repetitive doses of diphenhydramine may be used for headache control.

Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) small molecule and antibody treatments. Triptans are the gold standard for acute migraine treatment, yet 30% to 40% do not respond adequately to treatment and triptans are contraindicated in patients with cardiovascular disease.

CGRP plays an important role in the pathophysiology of migraine through neurogenic inflammation, activation of meningeal nociceptors, and vascular activity. “Gepants” are small molecule calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor antagonists.

Gepants are a relatively new nonvasoconstrictive approach to acute migraine treatment. They are considered first-line in patients with cardiovascular risk or second-line treatment in triptan nonresponders. None of the gepants, thus far, appear to be associated with medication overuse headache.

For preventive treatment, there are four FDA-approved monoclonal antibody calcitonin gene-related peptide inhibitors that are administered via IM or IV route.

There are three FDA-approved gepants for acute migraines in adults: ubrogepant, rimegepant, and zavegepant. Gepants can be available through oral tablet, dissolving tablet, or nasal spray.

The FDA approved ubrogepant (ubrelvy©) in December 2019 for the acute treatment of migraine with and without aura. In ACHIEVE-1, significantly more patients who received ubrogepant 50 mg and 100 mg achieved pain freedom at 2 hours postdose than placebo (19.2% and 21.2% vs. 11.8%, respectively) as well as absence of most bothersome migraine-associated symptoms (20). A significantly higher proportion of ubrogepant-treated patients versus placebo-treated patients reported return to normal function at 2 hours postdose (19). The adverse event profile was similar to placebo. There were no altered transaminase levels after intake of ubrogepant 100 mg as compared with placebo group.

Ubrogepant may also be an effective treatment for acute migraine in triptan nonresponders (06). Data from ACHIEVE I and ACHIEVE II was pooled for patients receiving ubrogepant 50 mg and matched with placebo. Amongst patients who deemed triptans ineffective (approximately 25% of study patients), 2-hour pain freedom following initial dose was achieved by 16% of patients in the ubrogepant group versus 8% in the placebo group. In the triptan-ineffective group, absence of most bothersome migraine-associated symptoms was achieved by 36% of patients in the ubrogepant group versus 23% in the placebo arm.

Data from the PRODROME trial screening period examined the effect of ubrogepant when taken in the first phase or the prodromal phase prior to pain onset in participants with at least two to eight migraines per month; 46% of patients in the ubrogepant group reported absence of moderate/severe intensity headache compared to 29% in the placebo group (18).

In February 2020, the FDA approved rimegepant (Nurtec©) for the acute treatment of migraine. In four phase 3 clinical trials, rimegepant 75 mg resulted in a higher percentage of patients who were pain-free at 2 hours (20.6% vs. 12.5%) and most bothersome symptoms-free at 2 hours posttreatment (36% vs. 25.1%) (28). One randomized controlled trial found that 75 mg rimegepant produced similar effect to 100 mg of sumatriptan with fewer adverse events (55). In a meta-analysis, the adverse events of 75 mg of rimegepant were similar to those of placebo. The most common adverse events were nausea and urinary tract infection. Meta-analysis showed no significant liver damage in rimegepant compared with placebo (2.2% vs. 2.9%) (28). A post-hoc analysis of the phase 2/3 safety study of rimegepant showed reduction in at least two monthly migraine days over the course of 52 weeks in participants who had least 6 monthly migraine days (36).

Standard dosage. Rimegepant 75 mg PO or ODT. Ubrogepant 50 mg and 100 mg PO.

Contraindications. Concomitant use of strong CYP3A4 inhibitors (eg, ketoconazole, itraconazole, clarithromycin).

Main drug interactions. Strong CYP3A4 inducers: should be avoided as concomitant use will result in reduction of ubrogepant exposure. Dose modifications are recommended when using the following: moderate or weak CYP3A4 inhibitors and inducers, BCRP, or P-gp only inhibitors.

Main side effects. Rimegepant-adverse events were similar to those of placebo. The four most common adverse events were nausea, UTI, dizziness, and AST or ALT above the upper limit of normal. Ubrogepant-adverse event profile was similar to that of placebo. The most common adverse events were nausea (4% vs. 2% placebo) and somnolence (3% vs. 1% placebo).

In March 2023, the FDA approved the first intranasal gepant spray, zavegepant, for acute treatment of migraine. In one phase 2/3 trial, zavegepant 10 mg and 20 mg resulted in a higher percentage of patients who were pain-free at 2 hours (10 mg at 22.5%, 20 mg at 23.1%, and placebo at 15.5%). A phase 3 trial showed zavegepant 10 mg had more pain freedom after 2 hours (24% vs. 15%) and freedom from most other migraine symptoms (40% vs. 31%) compared to placebo.

Standard dosage. Zavegepant 10 mg nasal spray (single spray in one nostril).

Main side effects. Most common side effects include dysgeusia, nausea, nasal discomfort, and transaminase elevations. A long-term side safety study reported adverse events in 1.16% of the treatment group; a formal analysis has not yet been published.

Atogepant is an oral CGRP receptor antagonist that was FDA approved for episodic and chronic migraine prevention. In the phase 3 ADVANCE trial, participants with at least 1 year of episodic migraine and 4 to 14 migraine days per month were randomized to 10 mg, 30 mg, 60 mg, or placebo. Results measured reduction in the number of mean monthly migraine days across a 12-week period and showed -3.7 days for 10 mg, -3.9 days for 30 mg, -4.2 days for 60 mg, and -2.5 days for placebo.

Atogepant was approved for chronic migraine prevention in April 2023 following results of the PROGRESS study, a phase 3 trial. Participants with at least 1 year of chronic migraine and at least 15 headache days were randomized to atogepant 30 mg BID, 60 mg daily, or placebo. The mean change of monthly migraine days was -7.5 days for 30 mg BID, -6.9 days for 60 mg daily, and -5.1 days for placebo.

Standard dosage. Atogepant 10 mg, 30 mg, or 60 mg for episodic prevention; 60 mg daily for chronic prevention.

Main side effects. Constipation, fatigue, and nausea. Dose-dependent weight loss (unclear mechanism).

Four anti-calcitonin gene-related peptide monoclonal antibodies have been FDA-approved for the prevention of episodic and chronic migraine. Three of the four monoclonal antibodies (eptinezumab, freanezumab, galcanezumab) target calcitonin gene-related peptide itself whereas the fourth, erenumab, targets the calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor. Of the four monoclonal antibodies, eptinezumab is administered via intravenous infusion every 3 months whereas the other monoclonal antibodies are a monthly subcutaneous injection. In the PROMISE-2 randomized controlled trial, eptinezumab produced greater than 50% headache reduction on the first day after administration, which was maintained at 1 month throughout the study (52). Its intravenous administration and rapid onset of action suggests that eptinezumab may have potential as an acute abortive agent and it is currently undergoing investigation for acute migraine attack in the RELIEF randomized controlled trial.

Standard dosage. 100 mg every 3 months; some patients may benefit from 300 mg.

Main drug interactions. Virtually none.

Main side effects. Treatment-emergent adverse events were similar across the treatment and placebo groups; most events were mild or moderate in severity. The most frequently reported treatment-emergent adverse event was fatigue and nausea.

Special populations. Not used in pregnancy or during lactation due to limited safety data. Not approved in children aged 17 and younger.

Cost and cost-effectiveness. Likely more costly for health insurance plans and patients than currently available oral triptans, which may have generic option. It’s important to understand the indications for initiating treatment: patients with contraindications to the use of triptans or who have failed to respond to or tolerate at least two oral triptans.

5-HT1F receptor agonists – ditans. The FDA approved lasmiditan in October 2019 for the acute treatment of migraine. Lasmiditan is a highly selective 5-HT1F receptor agonist. By activating prejunctional 5-HT1F receptors, lasmiditan may exert its antimigraine effect by suppressing calcitonin gene-related peptide release. Unlike activation of the 5-HT1B receptor subtype, activation of 5HT1F does not constrict blood vessels and, therefore, lasmiditan can be considered first line antimigraine treatment in patients with cardiovascular risk or second-line treatment in triptan nonresponders.

In the study SAMURAI, more patients dosed with lasmiditan 100 mg and 200 mg were pain-free at 2 hours and most bothersome symptom-free (photophobia, phonophobia, nausea) at 2 hours posttreatment as compared with placebo (46). Similar results were obtained in SPARTAN, in which doses of 50 mg, 100 mg, and 200 mg were compared to placebo (31). Although the percentage of patients who responded to lasmiditan increased with the dosage, lasmiditan was effective at 2 hours postdose at all the doses tested.

Safety data integrated from SAMURAI and SPARTAN revealed treatment-emergent adverse events were mild or moderate in severity, most commonly dizziness, paresthesias, and somnolence. There were no treatment-emergent events related to vasoconstriction (44). Pooled results from SAMURAI and SPARTAN showed no statistical difference of likely cardiovascular treatment-emergent adverse events (75). The GLADIATOR study to assess long-term safety of the 100 mg and 200 mg dose is still ongoing, with interim analysis at 1 year showing both doses are effective for acute migraine and well-tolerated.

The efficacy of lasmiditan seems to be in the same range as the triptans, with improved cardiovascular safety as compared to the triptans, although no head-to-head comparisons have been performed (16). In a pooled subgroup analysis of SAMURAI and SPARTAN, lasmiditan showed efficacy in both triptan good responders and triptan insufficient responders compared with placebo at doses 100 mg and 200 mg (42). This suggests lasmiditan offers a possible alternative option for acute migraine therapy regardless of prior triptan response.

Standard dosage. Lasmiditan 50 mg, 100 mg, and 200 mg.

Contraindications. None.

Main drug interactions. No significant effect on hepatic safety, EKG findings, or vital signs and no probable cases of serotonin syndrome.

Main side effects. Lasmiditan has a driving impairment warning due to side effect of dizziness reported by patients. Most common treatment-emergent adverse events were neurologic and were typically mild to moderate with dizziness, paresthesias, somnolence, fatigue, nausea, muscular weakness, and hypoesthesia. Unlike triptans, which have affinity for 5-HT1B located on vascular smooth muscle receptors, lasmiditan has high affinity for 5-HT1F receptor and is not a vasoconstrictor.

Other procedures. Greater occipital nerve blocks with an anesthetic (typically 1% to 2% lidocaine, or 0.25% bupivacaine) with or without steroids (typically methylprednisolone 20 to 40 mg) are generally safe and frequently performed by physicians for acute treatment of migraine. Retrospective data show it may reduce pain intensity and medication use but not pain duration (92).

Device-based treatments. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TNS; Cefaly) is a mode of intervention (using electrical micropulses to the supraorbital branch of the trigeminal nerve. Cefaly is FDA-approved for the treatment of chronic and acute migraine with or without aura. In the randomized ACME study, 1-hour treatment with the device resulted in superior pain reduction compared with sham at 1-hour, 2-hour, and 24-hour time points, although there was no difference in rescue medication intake following device use (Chou et al 2019). The net reduction on Visual Analog Scale (0-no pain, 10-maximum pain) was 1.68 points (p = 0.0001), 1.02 points (p = 0.028), and 1.08 points (p = 0.062) at 1, 2, and 24 hours postintervention, respectively. No serious adverse events occurred. TEAM, a phase 3 trial for use of the device in acute migraine, has completed enrollment with results pending.

Noninvasive vagus nerve stimulation (nVNS; gamma-Core©) is a hand-held neuromodulation device that when applied to the neck stimulates the vagus nerve’s afferent fibers. Noninvasive vagus nerve stimulation is FDA-approved for the acute treatment of episodic migraine and episodic cluster headache. The randomized PRESTO study demonstrated that noninvasive vagus nerve stimulation was superior to sham in aborting acute migraine attacks at 30 and 60 minutes (84). There were no serious adverse events; the most common adverse event was application site discomfort (2.5%) and nasopharyngitis (1.6%). Benefits of noninvasive vagus nerve stimulation include benign adverse event profile, may be used for multiple attacks without risk of medication overuse headache, and can be used in combination with any existing migraine treatment as a nonpharmacologic agent.

Remote electrical neuromodulation (REN; nerivio™) is a novel device approved by the FDA for treatment of acute migraine with or without aura in adult patients with episodic migraine. Remote electrical neuromodulation is a stimulation unit applied to the upper arm (median and musculocutaneous nerves) that uses smartphone-controlled electronic pulses to create a conditioned pain modulation response. A randomized, double-blind sham-controlled study demonstrated that active stimulation was more effective than sham in achieving pain relief (66.7 vs. 38.8%), pain-free (37.4% vs. 18.4%), and relief of most bothersome symptoms (46.3% vs. 22.2%) at 2 hours posttreatment (91).

Maintenance therapy. After acute treatment is completed, many patients with status migrainosus and chronic daily headache require continuing care, including a preventive treatment program using standard migraine preventive drugs. This may be initiated in the inpatient setting and then modified accordingly in the outpatient setting by the patient’s primary care physician or neurologist.

Outcomes

Treating patients who had intractable headache in a comprehensive inpatient unit demonstrated long-term benefits as measured by a prospective outcome evaluation (47), which showed a 64% reduction in the mean number of days that severe or incapacitating headache was sustained and a corresponding increase in the mean number of headache-free days. Dysfunctional days dropped by 70% and clinical depression by 69%. The mean percentage of subjective improvement was 70%, with 87% of patients reporting at least a 50% reduction in headache. Silberstein and Silberstein reported similar long-term benefits (79). Most patients (87%) detoxified from analgesic or ergotamine overuse as part of an inpatient program continued to do well when reevaluated at 2-year follow-up.

Special considerations

Pregnancy

As migraine is more common in women, particularly during the third to fourth decade of life, physicians should appropriately monitor/assess whether female patients may be pregnant or planning as many migraine treatments may pose significant risks to fetal development.

Migraine may worsen during the first trimester but generally improves during the second and third trimesters. For pregnant women with migraines, nonpharmacologic therapy such as biofeedback, relaxation techniques, rest, and massage should be optimized. Ergotamine and dihydroergotamine are absolutely contraindicated due to the risk of fetal abortion (30).

Acute treatments that may be used during pregnancy include acetaminophen, opioids such as hydrocodone (pregnancy category B), and magnesium; nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs may be used early in the pregnancy but should be avoided in the third trimester due to risk of preterm labor (07).

Triptans are generally avoided in pregnancy due to lack of dedicated studies in pregnant women. However, a comprehensive Norwegian registry-based study showed no evidence of increased risk of congenital malformations for children exposed to triptans during pregnancy (64). Additional pregnancy registry data for sumatriptan/naratriptan/Treximet, which can be accessed at http://pregnancyregistry.gsk.com/sumatriptan.html), do not show a significant rate of adverse events. Based on the prescriber and patient’s level of comfort and the patient’s severity of migraine, sumatriptan (the most commonly encountered triptan in registries), may be an option for treatment during pregnancy (53).

The Cefaly supraorbital transcutaneous stimulator is reported by the manufacturer as safe for use in pregnancy, as other forms of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for back pain have been safely used in pregnant women (41).

Pediatric populations. See MedLink Neurology article Headache in children: overview and treatment approaches.

The AAN and AHS released a practice guideline update on the acute treatment of migraine in children and adolescents (69).

There is probable evidence that acute migraine treatment is more likely to be effective earlier on in the attack (level B). There is probable evidence that ibuprofen oral solution 10 mg/kg is effective as an initial treatment to reduce pain in children and adolescents with migraine. For adolescents with migraine, there is level B evidence for the following medicines to reduce headache pain: sumatriptan/naproxen oral tablet (10/60 mg, 30/180 mg, 85/500 mg), zolmitriptan nasal spray 5 mg, sumatriptan nasal spray 20 mg, rizatriptan oral disintegrating tablet 5 or 10 mg, or almotriptan oral tablet (6.25 mg or 12.5 mg) (69).

Only the following triptans have FDA approval for use in children: rizatriptan (6-17 years), and almotriptan, sumatriptan/naproxen, and zolmitriptan nasal spray (patients aged 12 years and older). Ergots and oral naproxen alone have not been studied in children.

References

01: Anonymous. Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (HIS) The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition. Cephalalgia 2018;38(1):1-211. PMID 29368949
02: Beltramone M, Donnet A. Status migrainosus and migraine aura status in a French tertiary-care center: an 11-year retrospective analysis. Cephalalgia 2014;34(8):633-7. PMID 24504530
03: Bigal ME, Bordini CA, Speciali JG. Intravenous chlorpromazine in the emergency department treatment of migraines: a randomized controlled trial. J Emerg Med 2002a;23(2):141-8. PMID 12359281
04: Bigal ME, Bordini CA, Tepper SJ, Speciali JG. Intravenous magnesium sulphate in the acute treatment of migraine without aura and migraine with aura. Cephalalgia 2002b;22(5):345-53 PMID 12110110
05: Bigal ME, Serrano D, Buse D, Scher A, Stewart WF, Lipton RB. Acute migraine medications and evolution from episodic to chronic migraine: a longitudinal population-based study. Headache 2008;48(8):1157-68.** PMID 18808500
06: Blumenfeld AM, Goadsby PJ, Dodick DW, et al. Ubrogepant is effective for the acute treatment of migraine in patients for whom triptans are ineffective. Presented at: American Headache Society 2019. Philadelphia PA, July 11-14, 2019.
07: Brandes JL. Migraine in women. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2012;18(4):835-52.** PMID 22868545
08: Chen SP, Ful JL, Wang SJ. Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome: an under-recognized clinical emergency. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 2010;3(3):161-71. PMID 21179608
09: Chi PW, Hsieh KY, Chen KY, et al. Intranasal lidocaine for acute migraine: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS One 2019;14(10):e0224285. PMID 31644605
10: Chou DE, Shnayderman Yugrakh M, Winegarner D, Rowe V, Kuruvilla D, Schoenen J. Acute migraine therapy with external trigeminal neurostimulation (ACME): a randomized controlled trial. Cephalalgia 2019;39(1):3-14. PMID 30449151
11: Chua AL, Grosberg BM, Evans RW. Status migrainosus in children and adults. Headache 2019;59(9):1611-23. PMID 31603553
12: Collins RW, Jones JB, Walthall JD, et al. Intravenous administration of prochlorperazine by 15-minute infusion versus 2-minute bolus does not affect the incidence of akathisia: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med 2001;38(5):491-6. PMID 11679859
13: Coppola M, Yealy DM, Leibold RA. Randomized, placebo-controlled evaluation of prochlorperazine versus metoclopramide for Emergency Department treatment of migraine headache. Ann Emer Med 1995;26(5):541-6. PMID 7486359
14: Corbo J, Esses D, Bijur PE, Iannaccone R, Gallagher EJ. Randomized clinical trial of intravenous magnesium sulfate as and adjunctive medication for emergency department treatment of migraine headache. Ann Emerg Med 2001;38(6):621-7. PMID 11719739
15: Demirkaya S, Vural O, Dora B, Topcuoglu MA. Efficacy of intravenous magnesium sulfate in the treatment of acute migraine attacks. Headache 2001;41(2):171-7. PMID 11251702
16: de Vries T, Villalón CM, MaassenVanDenBrink A. Pharmacological treatment of migraine: CGRP and 5-HT beyond the triptans. Pharmacol Ther 2020;211:107528. PMID 32173558
17: Do TP, Remmers A, Schytz HW, et al. Red and orange flags for secondary headaches in clinical practice: SNNOOP10 list. Neurology 2019;92(3):134-44. PMID 30587518
18: Dodick DW, Goadsby PJ, Schwedt TJ, et al. Ubrogepant for the treatment of migraine attacks during the prodrome: a phase 3, multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial in the USA. Lancet 2023;402(10419):2307-16. PMID 37979595
19: Dodick DW, Lipton RB, Ailani J, et al. Ubrogepant, an acute treatment for migraine, improved patient-reported functional disability and satisfaction in 2 single-attack phase 3 randomized trials, ACHIEVE I and II. Headache 2020;60(4):686-700. PMID 32073660
20: Dodick DW, Lipton RB, Ailani J, et al. Ubrogepant for the treatment of migraine. N Engl J Med 2019;381(23):2230-41. PMID 31800988
21: Ducros A, Amrani EI, Slamia LB, et al. The first 3 months of the Lariboisiere Emergency Headache Center: a series of 3799 patients. Cephalalgia 2001;322 abstract.
22: Ducros A, Boukobza M, Porcher R, Sarov M, Valade D, Bousser MG. The clinical and radiological spectrum of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome. A prospective series of 67 patients. Lancet Neurol 2007;130(Pt 12):3091-101.** PMID 18025032
23: Edwards K, Norton J, Behnke M, Khoury K. Comparison of intravenous valproate vs intramuscular dihydroergotamine and metoclopramide for acute treatment of migraine headache. Cephalalgia 2001;21:433.
24: Evers S, Afra J, Frese A, et al. EFNS guideline on the drug treatment of migraine – revised report of an EFNS task force. Eur J Neurol 2009;16:968-81. PMID 19708964
25: Friedman BW, Esses D, Solorzano C, et al. A randomized controlled trial of prochlorperazine versus metoclopramide for treatment of acute migraine. Ann Emerg Med 2008;52(4):399-406. PMID 18006188
26: Friedman DI, Liu GT, Digre KB. Revised diagnostic criteria for the pseudotumor cerebri syndrome in adults and children. Neurology 2013;81(13):1159-65. PMID 23966248
27: Fusco BM, Barzoi G, Agro F. Repeated intranasal capsaicin applications to treat chronic migraine. Br J Anaesth 2003;90(6):812-14. PMID 12765904
28: Gao B, Yang Y, Wang Z, et al. Efficacy and safety of rimegepant for the acute treatment of migraine: evidence from randomized controlled trials. Front Pharmacol 2020;10:1577. PMID 32038251
29: García-Azorín D, Monje MHG, González-García N, Guerrero ÁL, Porta-Etessam J. Presence of red flags in patients with cerebral venous sinus thrombosis admitted to the emergency department because of headache: a STROBE compliant cohort-study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2020;99(29):e20900. PMID 32702831
30: Goadsby PJ, Goldberg J, Silberstein SD. Migraine in pregnancy. BMJ 2008;336(7659):1502-4. PMID 18583683
31: Goadsby PJ, Wietecha LA, Dennehy EB, et al. Phase 3 randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study of lasmiditan for acute treatment of migraine. Brain 2019;142(7):1894-904. PMID 31132795
32: Golikhatir I, Cheraghmakani H, Bozorgi F, Jahanian F, Sazgar M, Montazer SH. The efficacy and safety of prochlorperazine in patients with acute migraine: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Headache 2019;59(5):682-700. PMID 30990883
33: Grooters GS, Sluzewski M, Tijssen CC. How often is thunderclap headache caused by the reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome? Headache 2014;54(4):732-5. PMID 24822246
34: Hand PJ, Stark RJ. Intravenous Lignocaine infusions for severe chronic daily headache. Med J Aust 2000;172(4):157-9. PMID 10772585
35: Honkaniemi J, Liimatainen S, Rainesalo S, Sulavuori S. Haloperidol in the acute treatment of migraine: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Headache 2006;46(5):781-7. PMID 16643581
36: Johnston K, Harris L, Powell L, et al. Monthly migraine days, tablet utilization, and quality of life associated with rimegepant – post hoc results from an open label safety. J Headache Pain 2022;23(1):10. PMID 35038983
37: Jones EB, Gonzalez ER, Boggs JG, Grillo JA, Elswick RK. Safety and efficacy of rectal prochlorperazine for the treatment of migraine in the emergency department. Ann Emer Med 1994;24(2):237-41. PMID 8037389
38: Jones J, Sklar D, Dougherty J, White W. Randomized double-blind trial of intravenous prochlorperazine for the treatment of acute headache. JAMA 1989;261:1174-85. PMID 2915441
39: Kabbouche MA, Powers SW, Segers A, et al. Inpatient treatment of status migraine with dihydroergotamine in children and adolescents. Headache 2009;49(1):106-9. PMID 19125879
40: Kabbouche MA, Vockell AL, LeCates SL, Powers SW, Hershey AD. Tolerability and effectiveness of prochlorperazine for intractable migraine in children. Pediatrics 2001;107(4):E62. PMID 11335783
41: Keskin E, Onur O, Keskin H, et al. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation improves low back pain during pregnancy. Gyn Obst Inv 2012;74(1):76-83. PMID 22722614
42: Knievel K, Buchanan AS, Lombard L, et al. Lasmiditan for the acute treatment of migraine: Subgroup analyses by prior response to triptans. Cephalalgia 2020;40(1):19-27. PMID 31744319
43: Kostic MA, Gutierrez FJ, Rieg TS, Moore TS, Gendron RT. A prospective, randomized trial of intravenous prochlorperazine versus subcutaneous sumatriptan in acute migraine therapy in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 2010;56(1):1-6. PMID 20045576
44: Krege JH, Rizzoli PB, Liffick E, et al. Safety findings from Phase 3 lasmiditan studies for acute treatment of migraine: results from SAMURAI and SPARTAN. Cephalalgia 2019;39(8):957-66. PMID 31166697
45: Krymchantowski AV, Barbosa JS. Dexamethasone decreases migraine recurrence observed after treatment with a triptan combined with a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2001;59(3-B):708-11. PMID 11593269
46: Kuca B, Silberstein SD, Wietecha L, et al. Lasmiditan is an effective acute treatment for migraine: A phase 3 randomized study. Neurology 2018;91(24):e2222-32. PMID 30446595
47: Lake AE, Saper JR, Madden S, Kreeger C. Comprehensive inpatient treatment for intractable migraine: a prospective long-term outcome study. Headache 1993;33:55-62. PMID 8458722
48: Landy S, Rice K, Lobo B. Central sensitisation and cutaneous allodynia in migraine: implications for treatment. CNS Drugs 2004;18(6):337-42. PMID 15089101
49: Lipton R, Stewart W, Stone A, Lainez M, Sawyer J. Stratified care vs step care strategies for migraine. JAMA 2000;284:2599-2605. PMID 11086366
50: Lipton RB. Tracing transformation: chronic migraine classification, progression, and epidemiology. Neurology 2009;72(5 Suppl):S3-7. PMID 19188564
51: Lipton RB. Risk factors for and management of medication overuse headache. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2015;21:1118-31. PMID 26252595
52: Lipton RB, Goadsby PJ, Smith J, et al. Efficacy and safety of eptinezumab in patients with chronic migraine: PROMISE-2. Neurology 2020;94(13):e1365-77. PMID 32209650
53: MacGregor EA. Migraine in pregnancy and lactation. Neurol Sci 2014;35(S1):S61-4. PMID 24867839
54: Manack AM, Buse DC, Lipton RB. Chronic migraine: epidemiology and disease burden. Curr Pain Headache Rep 2011;15(1):70-8. PMID 21063918
55: Marcus R, Goadsby PJ, Dodick D, Stock D, Manos G, Fischer TZ. BMS-927711 for the acute treatment of migraine: a double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled, dose-ranging trial. Cephalalgia 2014;34(2):114-25. PMID 23965396
56: Marmura M, Rozen N, Abbas M, et al. Intravenous lidocaine in the treatment of refractory headache: a retrospective case series. Headache 2009;49(2):286-91. PMID 19222600
57: Mathew NT, Kailasam J, Meadors L, et al. Intravenous valproate sodium (depacon) aborts migraine rapidly: a preliminary report. Headache 2000;40(9):720-3. PMID 11091289
58: Mauskop A, Altura BT, Altura BM. Serum ionized magnesium levels and serum ionized calcium/ionized magnesium ratios in women with menstrual migraine. Headache 2002;42(4):242-8. PMID 12010379
59: May A, Schulte LH. Chronic migraine: risk factors, mechanisms and treatment. Nature Rev Neurol 2016;12(8):455-64. PMID 27389092
60: Mehta A, Danesh J, Kuruvilla D. Cerebral venous thrombosis headache. Curr Pain Headache Rep 2019;23(7):47. PMID 31147848
61: Meredith JT, Wait S, Brewer KL. A prospective double-blind study of nasal sumatriptan versus IV ketorolac in migraine. Am J Emerg Med 2003;21(3):173-5. PMID 12811706
62: Migraine in America. 2012 study results. Accessed October 20, 2015. Available at: Migraine.com. 2012.
63: Morren JA, Galvez-Jimenez N. Where is dihydroergotamine mesylate in the changing landscape of migraine therapy. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2010;11(18):3085-93. PMID 21080856
64: Nezvalova-Henriksen K, Spigset O, Nordeng H. Triptan exposure during pregnancy and the risk of major congenital malformations and adverse pregnancy outcomes: results from the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort study. Headache 2010;50(4):563-75. PMID 20132339
65: Nicholls L, Bragaw L, Ruetsch C. Opioid dependence treatment and guidelines. J Manag Care Pharm 2010;16(1 Suppl B):S14-21. PMID 20146550
66: Norton J. Use of intravenous valproate sodium in status migraine. Headache 2000;40(9):755-7. PMID 11091297
67: Orr SL, Aube M, Becker WJ, et al. Canadian Headache Society systematic review and recommendations on the treatment of migraine pain in emergency settings. Cephalalgia 2015;35(3):271-84. PMID 24875925
68: Orr SL, Turner A, Kabbouche MA, et al. The profile and prognosis of youth with status migrainosus: results from an observational study. Headache 2020;60(5):878-88. PMID 32031255
69: Oskoui M, Pringsheim T, Holler-Managan Y, et al. Practice guideline update summary: acute treatment of migraine in children and adolescents: report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society. Neurology 2019;93(11):487-99. PMID 31413171
70: Pryse-Phillips W, Aubé M, Bailey P, et al. A clinical study of migraine evolution. Headache 2006;46(10):1480-6. PMID 17115980
71: Raskin NH. Repetitive intravenous dihydroergotamine as therapy for intractable migraine. Neurology 1986;36:995-7. PMID 3520384
72: Schürks M. Genetics of migraine in the age of genome-wide association studies. J Headache Pain 2012;13(1):1-9. PMID 22072275
73: Schwedt TJ. Thunderclap headache. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2015;21(4 Headache):1058-71. PMID 26252591
74: Shahien R, Saleh SA, Bowirrat A. Intravenous sodium valproate aborts migraine headaches rapidly. Acta Neurol Scand 2011;123(4):257-65. PMID 20569223
75: Shapiro RE, Hochstetler HM, Dennehy EB, et al. Lasmiditan for acute treatment of migraine in patients with cardiovascular risk factors: post-hoc analysis of pooled results from 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trials. J Headache Pain 2019;20(1):90. PMID 31464581
76: Silberstein SD. Practice parameter: evidence-based guidelines for migraine headache (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2000;55(6):754-62.** PMID 10993991
77: Silberstein S, Dodick D. Acute migraine therapy. In: Silberstein S, Dodick D, editors. Migraine. 3rd edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016:135-61.
78: Silberstein SD, Lipton RB. Chronic daily headache, including transformed migraine, chronic tension-type headache, and medication overuse. In: Silberstein SD, Lipton RB, Dalessio DJ, editors. Wolff's headache. New York: Oxford, 2001:247-82.**
79: Silberstein SD, Silberstein JR. Chronic daily headache: prognosis following inpatient treatment with repetitive IV DHE. Headache 1992;32:439-45. PMID 1446987
80: Silberstein SD, Young WB, Mendizabal JE, Rothrock JF, Alam AS. Acute migraine treatment with droperidol: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 2003;60(2):315-21. PMID 12552051
81: Swidan SZ, Lake AE 3rd, Saper JR. Efficacy of intravenous diphenhydramine versus intravenous DHE-45 in the treatment of severe migraine headache. Curr Pain Headache Rep 2005;9(1):65-70. PMID 15625028
82: Taggart E, Doran S, Kokotillo A, Campbell S, Villa-Roel C, Rowe BH. Ketorolac in the treatment of acute migraine: a systematic review. Headache 2013;53(2):277-87. PMID 23298250
83: Tanen DA, Miller S, French T, Riffenburgh RH. Intravenous sodium valproate versus prochlorperazine for the emergency department treatment of acute migraine headaches: prospective, randomized, double-blind trial. Ann Emerg Med 2003;41(6):847-53. PMID 12764341
84: Tassorelli C, Grazzi L, de Tommaso M, et al. Noninvasive vagus nerve stimulation as acute therapy for migraine: the randomized PRESTO study. Neurology 2018;91(4):e364-73. PMID 29907608
85: Taverner D. Drug treatment of the cranial neuralgias. In: Vinken PJ, Bruyn GW, editors. Headaches and cranial neuralgias. New York: North-Holland Publ, 1978:378-85.
86: Tek DS, McClellan DS, Olshaker JS, Allen CL, Arthur DC. A prospective, double-blind study of metoclopramide hydrochloride for the control of migraine in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 1990;19(10):1083-7. PMID 2221512
87: Wang SJ, Silberstein SD, Young WB. Droperidol treatment of status migrainosus and refractory migraine. Headache 1997;37:377-82. PMID 9237411
88: Weaver CS, Jones JB, Chisholm CD, et al. Droperidol vs prochlorperazine for the treatment of acute headache. J Emerg Med 2004;26(2):145-50. PMID 14980334
89: Williams DR, Stark RJ. Intravenous lignocaine (lidocaine) infusion for the treatment of chronic daily headache with substantial medication overuse. Cephalalgia 2003;23(10):963-71. PMID 14984229
90: Woldeamanuel YW, Rapoport AM, Cowan RP. The place of corticosteroids in migraine attack management: A 65-year systematic review with pooled analysis and critical appraisal. Cephalalgia 2015;35(11):996-1024. PMID 25576463
91: Yarnitsky D, Dodick DW, Grosberg BM, et al. Remote electrical neuromodulation (ren) relieves acute migraine: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. Headache 2019;59(8):1240-52. PMID 31074005
92: Zhang H, Yang X, Lin Y, Chen L, Ye H. The efficacy of greater occipital nerve block for the treatment of migraine: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2018;165:129-33. PMID 29421172

Contributors

All contributors' financial relationships have been reviewed and mitigated to ensure that this and every other article is free from commercial bias.

Authors

Shuhan Zhu MD

Dr. Zhu of Boston Medical Center has no financial relationships to disclose.
See Profile
Minali Nigam MD

Dr. Nigam of Brigham and Women's Hospital and Massachusetts General Hospital has no relevant financial relationships to disclose.
See Profile

Editor

Stephen D Silberstein MD

Dr. Silberstein, Director of the Jefferson Headache Center at Thomas Jefferson University has no relevant financial relationships to disclose.
See Profile

Former Authors

Stephen D Silberstein MD
Noah Rosen MD
Michael A Ament MD
Sahar Swidan PharmD
Victoria T Trinh MD

Patient Profile

Age range of presentation: 6 to 65+ years
Sex preponderance: female>male, >2:1
Heredity: heredity may be a factor
Population groups selectively affected: Migraine affects women more than men. Incidence decreases with older age.
Occupation groups selectively affected: none selectively affected

This is an article preview.
Start a Free Account
to access the full version.

Nearly 3,000 illustrations, including video clips of neurologic disorders.
Every article is reviewed by our esteemed Editorial Board for accuracy and currency.
Full spectrum of neurology in 1,200 comprehensive articles.
Listen to MedLink on the go with Audio versions of each article.

Questions or Comment?

MedLink®, LLC

3525 Del Mar Heights Rd, Ste 304
San Diego, CA 92130-2122

Toll Free (U.S. + Canada): 800-452-2400

US Number: +1-619-640-4660

Support: service@medlink.com

Editor: editor@medlink.com

ISSN: 2831-9125

Status migrainosus

Associated Disorders

Chronic daily headache
Episodic migraine
Transformed migraine

Differential Diagnosis

acute single headache
subarachnoid hemorrhage
reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome
cerebral venous sinus thrombosis
pituitary apoplexy
- spontaneous intracranial hypotension
- hypertensive encephalopathy
- retroclival hematomas
- glaucoma
- meningitis
- first attack of migraine
- systemic Infection
- postconcussion/post-traumatic syndrome
- sinusitis
- acute recurrent headache
- subarachnoid hemorrhage
- cerebral tumors
- cerebrovascular insufficiency
- idiopathic intracranial hypertension
- intermittent hydrocephalus
- migraine
- subacute headache
- subdural hematoma
- pseudotumor cerebri
- tumor
- temporal arteritis (in elderly)
- brain abscess
- chronic daily headache
- analgesic rebound
- psychiatric state
- pseudotumor cerebri
- chronic tension-type headache

Also Relevant

Childhood migraine
Headache guidelines
Migraine
Migraine: clinical aspects

Clinical Categories

Headache & Pain

Patient Handouts

Web References

Guidelines

AAN: Headache

Status migrainosus

Introduction

Overview

Historical note and terminology

Table 1. International Headache Society Diagnostic Criteria for Status Migrainosus

Clinical manifestations

Presentation and course

Prognosis and complications

Table 2. International Classification of Headache Disorders 3rd Edition Diagnostic Criteria for Chronic Migraine

Clinical vignette

Biological basis

Etiology and pathogenesis

Epidemiology

Prevention

Differential diagnosis

Table 3. Differential Diagnosis of Status Migrainosus*

Diagnostic workup

Management

Table 4. Hospital-Based Treatment Options

Table 5. Detoxification guidelines

Table 6. Infusion-Based Treatment of Status Migrainosus

Outcomes

Special considerations

Pregnancy

References

Contributors

Authors

Editor

Former Authors

Patient Profile

ICD & OMIM codes

This is an article preview. Start a Free Account to access the full version.

Questions or Comment?

Also in This Category

Acupuncture

Migraine: pathogenesis and pathophysiology

Tension-type headache

Benign paroxysmal vertigo

New daily persistent headache

Headache associated with cervical spine dysfunction

Interventional options for cervicogenic headache

Pain

This is an article preview.
Start a Free Account
to access the full version.