Neuro-Oncology
Anti-LGI1 encephalitis
Oct. 03, 2024
Worddefinition
At vero eos et accusamus et iusto odio dignissimos ducimus qui blanditiis praesentium voluptatum deleniti atque corrupti quos dolores et quas.
Focal onset generalized absence seizures …
- Updated 01.07.2024
- Released 06.10.2014
- Expires For CME 01.07.2027
Focal onset generalized absence seizures
Introduction
Overview
Although absences are considered a paradigm of primarily generalized seizures, they may occasionally be of focal onset (focal onset generalized absence seizures), usually arising from focal brain pathology. Focal onset generalized absence seizures may manifest either as typical (with > 2.5 Hz spike-wave discharges) or atypical (with < 2.5 Hz spike-wave discharges) absence seizures. The most classic focal onset generalized absence seizures are those in patients with focal structural, mainly frontal lobe, brain abnormalities. Frontal absences are characterized by speech and behavioral arrest, staring, complete loss of consciousness (sometimes with minor head and eye turning), and simple automatisms. There does not appear to be a preceding aura. Absences can be very short, less than 5 seconds, but may continue for 30 seconds or more. In addition, approximately one-third of patients with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome manifest with atypical absence seizures due to secondary bilateral synchrony, which refers to bilateral and synchronous 2 to 4 Hz EEG discharges generated by a unilateral cortical focus. Prognosis is variable and depends on the underlying disorder. Prophylactic treatment is usually with broad spectrum antiepileptic drugs, such as valproate, levetiracetam, lamotrigine, and topiramate. In this article, the author details nomenclature, classification, clinical manifestations, pathophysiology, EEG, neuroimaging, and optimal management of patients with focal onset generalized absence seizures.
Key points
• Focal onset generalized absence seizures are of focal onset and may manifest as either typical (with > 2.5 Hz spike-wave discharges) or atypical (with < 2.5 Hz spike-wave discharges) absence seizures. | |
• The most classic focal onset generalized absence seizures are those manifested in patients with focal structural, mainly frontal, brain abnormalities. | |
• Approximately one-third of patients with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome manifest with atypical absence seizures due to secondary bilateral synchrony—that is bilateral and synchronous 2 to 4 Hz EEG discharges generated by a unilateral cortical focus. | |
• EEG and MRI are the main modes of investigations. | |
• Prognosis is variable depending on the underlying cause. | |
• Broad spectrum antiepileptic drugs (valproate, levetiracetam, lamotrigine, topiramate) alone, but more commonly in combination, are the main prophylactic treatment. |
Historical note and terminology
Although absences are considered a paradigm of primarily generalized seizures, they may occasionally be of focal onset (focal onset generalized absence seizures), usually arising from focal, mainly frontal lobe, brain pathology (09; 16; 45; 08; 10).
The term “secondarily generalized seizures” was first introduced in the 1970 International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) classifications of seizures and was maintained in the 1981 revision (19; Commission of Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy 1981). The prefix “secondarily” denotes generalized seizures that are of focal onset, as opposed to “primarily,” which are generalized epileptic seizures from onset. Secondarily generalized seizures rapidly evolve from a focal discharge or a focal seizure.
According to the more recent ILAE definitions, generalized seizures “originate at some point within, and rapidly engage, bilaterally distributed networks. Such bilateral networks can include cortical and subcortical structures, but do not necessarily include the entire cortex. Although individual seizure onsets can appear localized, the location and lateralization are not consistent from one seizure to another. Generalized seizures can be asymmetric.” Conversely, focal seizures “originate within networks limited to one hemisphere, which may be discretely localized or more widely distributed. Focal seizures may originate in subcortical structures” (05; 14).
Secondarily generalized seizures (of focal onset) start within networks limited to one hemisphere and either discretely localize or more widely distribute, but do not remain localized. They spread and trigger a generalized seizure. Secondarily generalized seizures usually refer to convulsive seizures (tonic, clonic, tonic-clonic), which are the most common progression of a focal seizure. However, though less common, it is well-known that focal discharges can rapidly evolve to an absence or a generalized spike-wave discharge. Typical of this situation is frontal absence seizures. Secondarily generalized absence seizures evolving from focal seizures have been introduced by the ILAE Task Force on Classification (15).
In the updated ILAE reports on classification, the term “secondarily” generalized seizures has been discarded (05; 14; 17; 18). It is replaced with “focal to bilateral convulsive seizures (tonic, clonic or tonic and clonic components in any order).” Furthermore, secondarily generalized absence seizures evolving from focal seizures are not recognized in these reports, though they are well documented as described in this clinical article. More relevant to secondarily (or focal onset) generalized absence seizures is “secondary bilateral synchrony,” which refers to bilateral and synchronous 2 to 4 Hz EEG discharges generated by a unilateral cortical focus. Contrary to secondary bilateral synchrony, primary bilateral synchrony manifests with more rapid symmetrical and synchronous generalized spike-wave discharges caused by a generalized epileptic process independent of any focal hemispheric lesion. The term “secondary bilateral synchrony” was coined by Tükel and Jasper (48).
Clinical manifestations
Presentation and course
Focal onset generalized absence seizures may manifest as either typical (with > 2.5 Hz spike-wave discharges) or atypical (with < 2.5 Hz spike-wave discharges) absence seizures. The most classic focal onset generalized absence seizures are those manifested in patients with focal structural, mainly frontal, brain abnormalities as in case 1 of Clinical vignettes. They may be the most prominent seizure type in a patient, but more often, focal and focal to bilateral tonic clonic seizures predominate.
Absence seizures with 3-4 Hz spike-wave discharges and left frontal lobe glioma
Brief, rather irregular, generalized discharges of 3-4 Hz spike wave in 1989 and 1995, with no clear-cut focal onset. There was some eyelid flickering during the discharges on video-EEG in 1995. (Contributed by Dr. C P Panayiotopo...
Frontal absences, that is, absence seizures of frontal lobe origin in patients with documented frontal lobe lesional foci, are probably the most common (32; 04; 03; 46; 34; 45; 26). Frontal absences “are characterized by speech and behavioral arrest, staring, reduced to complete loss of consciousness, (sometimes with minor head and eye turning), and simple automatisms. There does not appear to be a preceding aura. Absences can be as short as 10 s, typical of absence seizures in the idiopathic generalized epilepsies, but may continue for 30 s or more and may have a longer postictal period before complete recovery. Seizures may progress further into generalized convulsions, often with complex or asymmetric motor features” (46).
Grosso and associates described the characteristics of patients with typical absence seizures associated with focal epilepsy (Group 1) and compared them with patients having childhood absence epilepsy (Group 2) (22). Amongst consecutive patients with epilepsy, there were 14 in Group 1 and 53 in Group 2. In all patients of Group 1, onset was with focal seizures at a median age of 4.95±2.1 years (range 1.9 to 8.8). Ictal EEG and semiology features of typical absences of Group 1 did not show any distinctive features when compared to those of Group 2. However, in Group 1, more patients needed polytherapy, relapses were more frequent after drug discontinuation, and age at onset was significantly higher than in Group 2. None of the patients in Group 1 showed terminal remission.
Focal onset generalized absence seizures may progress to focal onset generalized tonic-clonic seizures as documented in a case report with video-EEG recording (45). This occurred after repeated bursts of 3 Hz spike-and-slow-wave complexes and manifested itself with conjugated deviation of the eyes and rotation of the head to the left before finally becoming a secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizure. The patient was a 20-year-old man with seizure onset at 16 years of age. Seizures consisted of sudden loss of consciousness with quick recovery after each episode, at a frequency of more than 100 times a day; sudden arrested motions, with twitching at the left corner of the mouth, followed by clonic conjugated deviation of the eyes and head turning to the left (these occurred monthly); and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures once or twice per month. Transient left hemiplegia remained after a cluster of seizures. MRI and SPECT were normal, but FDG-PET showed hypometabolism in the right frontal lobe. EEG showed 3 Hz (2.5 to 4 Hz) diffuse spike-and-slow-wave complexes predominantly in the frontal area. The diffuse spike-wave complexes were sometimes expressed in a burst form for between a few and dozens of seconds. The spike-and-slow-wave complexes were easily triggered by hyperventilation and sleep.
Another interesting case is of a 50-year-old woman who, from early childhood, had three types of seizures throughout her life: (1) focal motor seizures with right facial myoclonus involving the mouth, jaw, and periocular regions, and sometimes epilepsia partialis continua; (2) infrequent absence-like seizures with eye blinking, lasting up to 10 seconds; and (3) generalized tonic-clonic seizures occurring especially at night or early morning, sometimes beginning with head version to the right, but not followed by postictal paresis (13). High-resolution MRI with thin T1-weighted cuts and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery revealed a small area of focal cortical dysplasia in the depth of the left central sulcus. The authors compared the BOLD patterns related to both focal and generalized discharges and assessed the relationships between the underlying epileptogenic networks. BOLD activation was restricted, or almost restricted, to the dysplastic motor cortex in the case of focal events, whereas generalized spike-wave discharges induced activations slightly more anteriorly at the vicinity of the same area, but also in the homologous contralateral precentral cortex and bilaterally in remote cortical regions and thalamus. Although the central cortex was involved during both types of epileptic activity, EEG-fMRI revealed distinct neuronal networks at the time of the focal or generalized discharges, allowing a clear-cut differentiation of the generators; BOLD changes in the perilesional dysplastic area during focal or generalized discharges did not share a common pathophysiologic basis. The authors considered it debatable whether the patient had distinct epileptic syndromes or distinct electrographic patterns from the lesional trigger.
Raymond and colleagues studied 100 adults with cortical dysgenesis and epileptic seizures (44; 43). Fourteen of these patients had 3 Hz spike-wave EEG paroxysms. Several reported “brief blank spells,” and the majority of them had subependymal heterotopia.
Thalamic lesions may be a rare cause of focal onset generalized absence seizures (12). Also, a case of Rasmussen syndrome developed clinico-EEG manifestations of typical absence seizures, which the authors attributed to oxcarbazepine (11). This was a girl with right hemiatrophy, mainly at the Sylvian fissure and interictal EEG with focal spikes and diffuse paroxysms in the right fronto-temporal regions. After initiating oxcarbazepine, the patient developed daily, brief absence seizures, lasting less than 20 seconds and associated with bilateral and synchronous 2.5-3-Hz spike-and-waves compatible with typical absences.
Approximately one-third of patients with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome manifest with atypical absence seizures due to secondary bilateral synchrony, and these seizures are probably no different than those of the other two-thirds of patients with this syndrome (21; 07; 37).
Focal onset generalized absence seizures due to secondary bilateral synchrony are detailed in the MedLink Neurology article on Lennox-Gastaut syndrome.
Prognosis and complications
Limited data exist for prognostic factors, specifically for focal onset generalized absence seizures. However, their prognosis appears to be less favorable than that for patients with typical absence seizures (22). Extremely severe is the prognosis of epileptic encephalopathies manifesting with this type of seizure.
Clinical vignette
Case 1. Focal onset generalized absence seizures originating in the right frontal lobe. A 33-year-old woman started having absences confirmed with EEG at the age of 28. They consisted of “losing control of thoughts,” mild eyelid flickering, repeating simple phrases, and, occasionally, mild jerking of the head to the right. They were brief, lasting for 4 to 5 seconds, but could also last up to 1 minute. Initially infrequent, they later occurred daily despite appropriate antiepileptic medication with valproate, lamotrigine, and, later, add-on clobazam and carbamazepine. She also had infrequent generalized tonic-clonic seizures and once had an episode of absence status epilepticus. Brain imaging demonstrated a right frontal lobe low-grade glioma.
Absence seizures with 3-4 Hz spike-wave discharges and left frontal lobe glioma
Brief, rather irregular, generalized discharges of 3-4 Hz spike wave in 1989 and 1995, with no clear-cut focal onset. There was some eyelid flickering during the discharges on video-EEG in 1995. (Contributed by Dr. C P Panayiotopo...
Case 2. Hypermotor and focal onset generalized absence seizures originating from the left parietal lobe. A 28-year-old woman suffered from hypermotor seizures since she was 6 years old. Clinically, the seizures imitated those originating from the supplementary somatosensory area of the frontal lobe. They occurred in clusters and were mainly nocturnal. There was no ictal impairment of consciousness and no postictal symptomatology. She could be free of seizures for months, and sometimes for 1 or 2 years, for no apparent reason. However, when the seizures relapsed again, they were numerous, with 10 or more occurring every night. Various combinations of appropriate antiepileptic drug combinations failed to control the seizures.
Focal onset generalized absence seizures with 3 to 4 Hz spike-wave discharges were recognized only on video-EEG.
-
Habitual hypermotor seizure preceding a focal onset generalized absenceHabitual hypermotor seizure preceding a focal onset generalized absence with 3 Hz spike-wave discharge. Note that the 3- to 4-Hz discharge starts long after the hypermotor symptoms, and it is mainly left-sided. Also note the rhyth...
These would usually occur after the onset of her habitual hypermotor seizures or with no apparent focal onset. Clinical symptomatology during 3 to 4 Hz discharges consisted of rhythmic myoclonic jerking.
Brain MRI documented a small unilateral malformation of cortical development in the left parietal lobe.
Biological basis
Localization
Focal onset generalized absence seizures represent clinical manifestations of ictal electrical discharge beginning in a restricted focus and spreading to involve bilateral outputs from the brain, generating typical or atypical absence seizures. Focal onset generalized absence seizures and secondary bilateral synchrony more frequently originate from frontal lobe foci (48; 04; 09; 03; 46; 08). Frontal absences have been described with ictal onset sites in the medial frontal gyrus, the anterior cingulate gyrus, and orbitofrontal cortex. Frontal absences have not been seen in patients with seizures from the supplementary motor area, and seem to originate from the more anterior half of the mesial frontal cortex. One would hypothesize the areas maximally involved in the ictal discharge to have dense callosal connections, or projections to the thalamus, to account for the abrupt alteration of awareness and bilateral ictal EEG findings (46).
Using scalp EEG recording, Tükel and Jasper reported that in some cases, a generalized 3 Hz spike-wave complex appeared in paramedian lesions. They coined the term “secondary bilateral synchrony” to describe the spike-wave complex that was focused in focal lesions and became secondarily generalized: “The wave and spike of petit mal is a primary bilateral synchronous discharge . . . ; it appears not to be related to a unilateral cortical focus, but may be of subcortical origin. . . . On the other hand, a bilateral synchronous discharge which can be shown to arise from a unilateral cortical focus we shall call secondary bilateral synchrony” (48).
However, Penfield and Jasper had previously remarked: “An epileptogenic lesion of the mesial or inferior aspect of a frontal lobe, although it is one-sided, may produce bifrontal synchronous discharges” (40).
With stereoelectroencephalography recordings, Bancaud and Talairach reported 161 seizures in 39 patients, in whom discharges initially affected the medial surface of the intermediate frontal region, producing two types of paroxysmal clinical manifestations: (1) “frontal absences,” as they termed them, and (2) complex motor seizures (04; 03).The clinical patterns of frontal absences were very close to those of typical absence seizures: arrest of speech and gestures, opening of the eyes, and brisk recovery of consciousness.
Relevant to the above is the knowledge that patients with idiopathic generalized epilepsy and generalized 3 to 4 Hz spike-wave discharges may also have focal clinical or EEG signs, and reports from animal models indicate that absence seizures arise from the somatosensory cortex, thus, providing support of a "focal hypothesis" of typical absence seizures (33; 36; 35; 41; 42; 31; 29). From this focus, seizure activity generalizes rapidly over the cortex. During the first cycles of the seizure the cortex drives the thalamus, whereas thereafter the cortex and thalamus drive each other, thus, amplifying and maintaining the rhythmic discharge. In this way the "cortical focus" theory for generalized absence epilepsy bridges cortical and thalamic theories. For more information on localization and pathophysiology, see the article on Typical absences.
Secondary bilateral synchrony from cortical, mainly frontal, foci has been implicated in atypical absence seizures and other “generalized” epileptic seizures in epileptic encephalopathies (21; 07; 27; 37; 38; 08). Secondary bilateral synchrony refers to bilateral and synchronous EEG discharges generated by a unilateral cortical focus. Contrary to secondary bilateral synchrony, primary bilateral synchrony manifests with more rapid symmetrical and synchronous generalized spike-wave discharges caused by a generalized epileptic process independent of any focal hemispheric lesion. Secondary bilateral synchrony has been considered the main pathophysiological mechanism in a third of cases of typical Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (37).
Like the typical absences, the atypical absences with an irregular diffuse sharp and slow-wave discharge appear to include a diffuse cerebral discharge affecting, above all, the nonspecific thalamocortical system, perhaps as a secondarily generalized discharge from a cortical focus often hidden (mesial frontal, orbital frontal, etc.). The irregularity of the discharges may be related to the diffuse cortical damage and the partial breakdown of thalamocortical connections by the atrophic encephalopathy (20).
Differential diagnosis
Confusing conditions
The diagnosis of absence seizures relies critically on history and EEG documentation. Usually it is not difficult to distinguish focal onset generalized absence seizures from typical absence seizures of idiopathic generalized epilepsy, such as childhood or juvenile absence epilepsy. However, these are more difficult to differentiate from atypical absences of syndromes such as Lennox-Gastaut or Dravet syndrome.
The focal localization is usually recognized on EEG and brain imaging. However, spread of the seizure can be extremely rapid, making it difficult to appreciate clinically or with EEG. Further, generalized 2 to 4 Hz EEG discharges and absence seizures without evidence of focal onset in patients having a brain lesion raise the question of the inter-independency of the two phenomena and whether the brain lesion should be considered incidental. Furthermore, idiopathic generalized epilepsies with typical absence seizures frequently show focal, mainly multifocal, spikes (33; 39; 31; 29; 28). The difficulty in differentiating “truly focal onset generalized absence seizures” from typical absence seizures of idiopathic generalized epilepsy is illustrated in the spatiotemporal profiles of focal and generalized spikes in children with childhood absence epilepsy (29). Spatiotemporal analysis demonstrated a variety of mainly frontal and occipital locations for pre-generalization focal spike-wave discharges with propagation along the longitudinal axis in either direction and across homologous sites. Interictal focal spike and wave discharges demonstrated similar spatiotemporal characteristics. In contrast, the topography and propagation patterns of the first generalized spike of the spike-wave discharge showed less variability, mainly involved the frontotemporal/temporal areas, and correlated poorly (less than 10%) with that of the pre-generalization focal spike-wave discharge. In one report, the same group of investigators studied the spatial distribution in time of generalized ictal spikes in 12 children with childhood absence epilepsy who had more than two typical absences during their routine video-EEG (28). Seizures were identified, and ictal spikes were marked over the maximum electronegative peak, clustered, waveform-averaged, and spatio-temporally analyzed in 2D electrode space. It was found that consistency of spatiotemporal patterns of ictal spikes was high between the absences of the same child, but low between children. Three main discharge patterns were identified: of anterio-posterior propagation, of posterio-anterior propagation, and confined to the frontal/prefrontal regions. In four patients, the propagation patterns transformed during the seizure into either a lateralized diminished or a non-lateralized reverse direction form. Most spikes originated fronto-temporaly, all maximized over the frontal or prefrontal electrodes and mostly decayed prefrontaly. In four patients, lateralized propagation patterns were identified. It was concluded that ictal spike propagation patterns suggest that epileptogenic childhood absence epilepsy networks are personalized, interconnect distal areas in the brain—not the entire cortex—with a tendency to generate bilateral symmetrical discharges, sometimes unsuccessfully. The transformation of propagation patterns during the seizure indicates the existence of dynamic interplay within epileptogenic networks (28).
Associated and underlying disorders
Although typical absences are considered the paradigm seizure type of idiopathic generalized epilepsies, they may occasionally be symptomatic, arising as a consequence of a known disorder of the CNS (16; 12). The latter may be focal or diffuse, traumatic, metabolic, or inflammatory (16). In most cases an etiological link is not proved, and it is likely that some of them are coincidental.
Structural frontal lobe epilepsy is the main focal epilepsy in which focal onset generalized absence seizures occur. Lennox-Gastaut and Dravet syndromes are severe forms of epilepsy manifesting with this type of epileptic seizure.
Diagnostic workup
A detailed medical history of the semiology of the seizure, coexistence of other types of seizure, neurologic and cognitive state of the patient, and family history is essential. EEG and MRI are the most important diagnostic tools.
The EEG abnormalities that can be observed in focal onset generalized absence seizures include interictal and ictal patterns. The interictal pattern may show focal abnormalities of slow waves or focal spikes-polyspikes and sharp waves, or a combination. These are usually consistently localized around the same brain area (mainly frontal). Conversely, focal spikes in idiopathic generalized epilepsies with typical absence seizures are usually multifocal and in various localizations (31; 29; 28). The ictal pattern usually consists of irregular 2 to 4 Hz generalized spike/multi-spike and slow wave.
The coexistence of focal and generalized EEG discharges in the same patient is not infrequent, particularly in children, although overt epileptic seizures of both types are rare (30; 22; 23; 24).
Brain MRI is recommended as the standard of care for patients with suspicion of focal-onset epilepsy, including focal onset generalized absence seizures.
Management
Prophylactic treatment with antiepileptic drugs is the mainstay of the management of focal onset generalized absence seizures, though surgery may also be appropriate in selective cases with clear cut focal abnormalities.
The antiepileptic drug selection is based on consideration of underlying cause, other types of coexistent seizures, comorbidities, and drug interactions. Patients probably respond best to broad spectrum antiepileptic drugs, which are efficacious in all or most focal and generalized epileptic seizures. These include valproate, levetiracetam, lamotrigine, and topiramate, alone or in combination. More specifically, levetiracetam was found useful in reducing both secondary bilateral synchrony on EEG and seizure frequency (25). Lamotrigine also had a good efficacy as an add-on therapy in severe focal epilepsy in adults with drop seizures and secondary bilateral synchrony on EEG (06).
Perampanel, lacosamide, and brivaracetam are the newest antiepileptic drugs to consider (02; 01). For more information, please see pharmacological treatment of epilepsy in adolescents and adults.
Surgery may be appropriate in selective cases with clear cut focal abnormalities, but the results are not encouraging (47).
Media
References
- 01
- Abou-Khalil BW. Update on antiepileptic drugs 2019. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2019;25(2):508-36. PMID 30921021
- 02
- Arzimanoglou A, D'Cruz O, Nordli D, Shinnar S, Holmes GL, Pediatric Epilepsy Academic Consortium for Extrapolation (PEACE). A review of the new antiepileptic drugs for focal-onset seizures in pediatrics: role of extrapolation. Paediatr Drugs 2018;20(3):249-64. PMID 29616471
- 03
- Bancaud J, Talairach J. Clinical semiology of frontal lobe seizures. Adv Neurol 1992;57:3-58. PMID 1543059
- 04
- Bancaud J, Talairach J, Morel P, et al. "Generalized" epileptic seizures elicited by electrical stimulation of the frontal lobe in man. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1974;37(3):275-82. PMID 4136279
- 05
- Berg AT, Berkovic SF, Brodie MJ, et al. Revised terminology and concepts for organization of seizures and epilepsies: report of the ILAE Commission on Classification and Terminology, 2005-2009. Epilepsia 2010;51(4):676-85. PMID 20196795
- 06
- Bisulli F, Baruzzi A, Rosati A, et al. Efficacy of lamotrigine add-on therapy in severe partial epilepsy in adults with drop seizures and secondary bilateral synchrony on EEG. Epileptic Disord 2001;3(3):151-6. PMID 11679308
- 07
- Blume WT. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome and secondary bilateral synchrony: a comparison. In: Wolf P, editor. Epileptic seizures and syndromes. London: John Libbey & Company Ltd, 1994:285-97.
- 08
- Blume WT. Clinical intracranial overview of seizure synchrony and spread. Can J Neurol Sci 2009;36 Suppl 2:S55-7. PMID 19760904
- 09
- Blume WT, Pillay N. Electrographic and clinical correlates of secondary bilateral synchrony. Epilepsia 1985;26(6):636-41. PMID 4076066
- 10
- Borelli P, Avesani M, Formaggio E, et al. EEG-fMRI as an useful tool to detect epileptic foci associated with secondary bilateral synchrony. Seizure 2010;19(9):605-8. PMID 20933440
- 11
- Caraballo RH, Cachia P, Valenzuela GR, Calvo A. Rasmussen syndrome: absence seizures may be induced by oxcarbazepine. Epileptic Disord 2019;21(1):108-11. PMID 30767898
- 12
- Carrera-Garcia L, Malaga-Dieguez I, Blanco-Lago R, az-Baamonde A, Santovena-Gonzalez L, Gonzalez-Rato J. Symptomatic absence seizures, the least known causation of absence seizures. Rev Neurol 2017;65(6):263-7. PMID 28896000
- 13
- Chassagnon S, Hawko CS, Bernasconi A, Gotman J, Dubeau F. Coexistence of symptomatic focal and absence seizures: video-EEG and EEG-fMRI evidence of overlapping but independent epileptogenic networks. Epilepsia 2009;50(7):1821-6. PMID 19453711
- 14
- Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Rasmussen syndrome. Accessed May 2016. Available at EpilepsyDiagnosis.org. 2014.**
- 15
- Engel J Jr. Report of the ILAE classification core group. Epilepsia 2006;47(9):1558-68. PMID 16981873
- 16
- Ferrie CD, Giannakodimos S, Robinson RO, Panayiotopoulos CP. Symptomatic typical absence seizures. In: Duncan JS, Panayiotopoulos CP, editors. Typical absences and related epileptic syndromes. London: Churchill Communications Europe, 1995:241-52.
- 17
- Fisher RS, Cross JH, French JA, et al. Operational classification of seizure types by the International League Against Epilepsy: position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia 2017a;58(4):522-30. PMID 28276060
- 18
- Fisher RS, Cross JH, D'Souza C, et al. Instruction manual for the ILAE 2017 operational classification of seizure types. Epilepsia 2017b;58(4):531-42. PMID 28276064
- 19
- Gastaut H. Clinical and electroencephalographical classification of epileptic seizures. Epilepsia 1970;11(1):102-13. PMID 5268244
- 20
- Gastaut H, Broughton R. Epileptic seizures. Clinical and electrographic features, diagnosis and treatment. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C Thomas, 1972.
- 21
- Gastaut H, Zifkin BG. Secondary bilateral synchrony and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. In: Niedermeyer E, Degen R, editors. The Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. New York: Alan R Liss, 1988:221-42.
- 22
- Grosso S, Galimberti D, Gobbi G, et al. Typical absence seizures associated with localization-related epilepsy: a clinical and electroencephalographic characterization. Epilepsy Res 2005;66(1-3):13-21. PMID 16115749
- 23
- Hirsch E. Childhood epilepsy syndromes with both focal and generalized seizures. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 2005;181:52-6. PMID 16238710
- 24
- Jeha LE, Morris HH, Burgess RC. Coexistence of focal and idiopathic generalized epilepsy in the same patient population. Seizure 2006;15(1):28-34. PMID 16352448
- 25
- Kanemura H, Sano F, Sugita K, Aihara M. Effects of levetiracetam on seizure frequency and neuropsychological impairments in children with refractory epilepsy with secondary bilateral synchrony. Seizure 2013;22(1):43-7. PMID 23127775
- 26
- Kanemura H, Sano F, Sugita K, Aihara M. Ictal SPECT of thalamocortical coupling in a patient with frontal absence. Neuropediatrics 2011;42(5):200-3. PMID 22015435
- 27
- Kobayashi K, Nishibayashi N, Ohtsuka Y, Oka E, Ohtahara S. Epilepsy with electrical status epilepticus during slow sleep and secondary bilateral synchrony. Epilepsia 1994;35(5):1097-103. PMID 7925158
- 28
- Kokkinos V, Koupparis AM, Koutroumanidis M, Kostopoulos GK. Spatiotemporal propagation patterns of generalized ictal spikes in childhood absence epilepsy. Clin Neurophysiol 2017;128(9):1553-62. PMID 28709121
- 29
- Kokkinos V, Koupparis AM, Tsiptsios D, Kostopoulos GK, Koutroumanidis M. Spatiotemporal profiles of focal and generalised spikes in childhood absence epilepsy. Epileptic Disord 2013;15(1):14-26.** PMID 23702456
- 30
- Koutroumanidis M, Hennessy MJ, Elwes RD, Binnie CD, Polkey CE. Coexistence of temporal lobe and idiopathic generalized epilepsies. Neurology 1999;53(3):490-5. PMID 10449109
- 31
- Koutroumanidis M, Tsiptsios D, Kokkinos V, Kostopoulos GK. Focal and generalized EEG paroxysms in childhood absence epilepsy: topographic associations and distinctive behaviors during the first cycle of non-REM sleep. Epilepsia 2012;53(5):840-9. PMID 22360352
- 32
- Loiseau P, Cohadon F, Cohadon S. [Recording of the absence of petit mal aspects in a 40-year-old man with epileptic attacks since 3 years of age and with a frontal glioma]. [Article in French] Rev Neurol (Paris) 1970;122(6):493-4. PMID 4995952
- 33
- Lombroso CT. Consistent EEG focalities detected in subjects with primary generalized epilepsies monitored for two decades. Epilepsia 1997;38(7):797-812. PMID 9579907
- 34
- Maruyama K, Itomi K, Ishiguro Y, Okumura A, Negoro T, Watanabe K. [A case with frontal lobe epilepsy presenting with absence seizures as cardinal manifestation: ictal EEG findings]. No To Hattatsu 2002;34(1):72-6. PMID 11808212
- 35
- Meeren H, van Luijtelaar G, Lopes da Silva F, Coenen A. Evolving concepts on the pathophysiology of absence seizures: the cortical focus theory. Arch Neurol 2005;62(3):371-6. PMID 15767501
- 36
- Meeren HK, Pijn JP, van Luijtelaar EL, Coenen AM, Lopes da Silva FH. Cortical focus drives widespread corticothalamic networks during spontaneous absence seizures in rats. J Neurosci 2002;22(4):1480-95. PMID 11850474
- 37
- Ohtahara S, Ohtsuka Y, Kobayashi K. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: a new vista. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1995;49(3):S179-83. PMID 8612138
- 38
- Palva JM, Palva S, Kaila K. Phase synchrony among neuronal oscillations in the human cortex. J Neurosci 2005;25(15):3962-72. PMID 15829648
- 39
- Panayiotopoulos CP. Idiopathic generalised epilepsies. A clinical guide to epileptic syndromes and their treatment. Revised 2nd ed. London: Springer, 2010:377-421.
- 40
- Penfield W, Jasper H. Highest level seizures. Res Publ Assoc Nerv Ment 1945;26:252-71.
- 41
- Polack PO, Guillemain I, Hu E, Deransart C, Depaulis A, Charpier S. Deep layer somatosensory cortical neurons initiate spike-and-wave discharges in a genetic model of absence seizures. J Neurosci 2007;27(24):6590-9. PMID 17567820
- 42
- Polack PO, Mahon S, Chavez M, Charpier S. Inactivation of the somatosensory cortex prevents paroxysmal oscillations in cortical and related thalamic neurons in a genetic model of absence epilepsy. Cereb Cortex 2009;19(9):2078-91. PMID 19276326
- 43
- Raymond AA, Fish DR, Sisodiya SM, Alsanjari N, Stevens JM, Shorvon SD. Abnormalities of gyration, heterotopias, tuberous sclerosis, focal cortical dysplasia, microdysgenesis, dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour and dysgenesis of the archicortex in epilepsy. Clinical, EEG and neuroimaging features in 100 adult patients. Brain 1995;118(Pt 3):629-60. PMID 7600083
- 44
- Raymond AA, Fish DR, Stevens JM, Sisodiya SM, Alsanjari N, Shorvon SD. Subependymal heterotopia: a distinct neuronal migration disorder associated with epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994;57(10):1195-202. PMID 7931380
- 45
- Sakakibara S, Nakamura F, Demise M, et al. Frontal lobe epilepsy with absence-like and secondarily generalized seizures. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2003;57(4):455-6. PMID 12839530
- 46
- So NK. Mesial frontal epilepsy. Epilepsia 1998;39 Suppl 4:S49-S61. PMID 9637593
- 47
- Sunwoo JS, Byun JI, Moon J, et al. Unfavorable surgical outcomes in partial epilepsy with secondary bilateral synchrony: intracranial electroencephalography study. Epilepsy Res 2016;122:102-9. PMID 27003332
- 48
- Tukel K, Jasper H. The electroencephalogram in parasagittal lesions. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1952;4(4):481-94. PMID 12998596
Contributors
All contributors' financial relationships have been reviewed and mitigated to ensure that this and every other article is free from commercial bias.
Author
-
Henry Hasson MD
Dr. Hasson of Albert Einstein College of Medicine has no relevant financial relationships to disclose.
See Profile
Editor
-
Solomon L Moshé MD
Dr. Moshé of Albert Einstein College of Medicine has no relevant financial relationships to disclose.
See Profile
Former Authors
- C P Panayiotopoulos MD PhD
- Jerome Engel Jr MD PhD
Patient Profile
- Age range of presentation
-
- 1 month to 65+ years
ICD & OMIM codes
- ICD-9
-
- Other forms of epilepsy and recurrent seizures: 345.8
- ICD-10
-
- Epilepsy, unspecified: G40.9
This is an article preview.
Start a Free Account
to access the full version.
-
Nearly 3,000 illustrations, including video clips of neurologic disorders.
-
Every article is reviewed by our esteemed Editorial Board for accuracy and currency.
-
Full spectrum of neurology in 1,200 comprehensive articles.
-
Listen to MedLink on the go with Audio versions of each article.
Questions or Comment?
MedLink®, LLC
3525 Del Mar Heights Rd, Ste 304
San Diego, CA 92130-2122
Toll Free (U.S. + Canada): 800-452-2400
US Number: +1-619-640-4660
Support: service@medlink.com
Editor: editor@medlink.com
ISSN: 2831-9125
Also in This Category
-
-
Epilepsy & Seizures
Alcohol withdrawal seizures
Sep. 16, 2024
-
Epilepsy & Seizures
Epileptic lesions due to malformation of cortical development
Sep. 06, 2024
-
Epilepsy & Seizures
Epileptic spasms
Sep. 06, 2024
-
Epilepsy & Seizures
Jacksonian seizures
Aug. 23, 2024
-
Peripheral Neuropathies
Neuroacanthocytosis
Aug. 22, 2024
-
Epilepsy & Seizures
Familial focal epilepsy with variable foci
Aug. 20, 2024
-
Epilepsy & Seizures
Familial mesial temporal lobe epilepsy
Aug. 19, 2024