Myopathies associated with parathyroid disorders …

Douglas J Lanska MD MS MSPH

Neuromuscular Disorders

Updated 05.20.2024
Released 10.05.1995
Expires For CME 05.20.2027

Myopathies associated with parathyroid disorders

Author: Douglas J Lanska MD MS MSPH

See Contributor Disclosures

Myopathies associated with parathyroid disorders

In This Article

Quick Link

Introduction

Overview

Disorders of calcium metabolism, including hyper- or hypofunction of parathyroid hormone, are frequently overlooked causes of muscle dysfunction, and presentation is often non-descript, with mild proximal weakness, muscle pain, and a normal CK. However, when identified and treated, complete resolution of the myopathy can occur, as seen with removal of an adenomatous parathyroid gland for primary hyperparathyroidism or with a subtotal parathyroidectomy for secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients on chronic hemodialysis. There are two mechanisms in which primary hyperparathyroidism can cause weakness: decreased energy production and skeletal muscle catabolism. However, the pathophysiology of weakness in hypoparathyroidism is not well understood.

Key points

	• Primary hyperparathyroidism, secondary hyperparathyroidism (due to renal failure), and osteomalacia may cause myalgia, mild proximal weakness, and normal or slightly elevated CK; the shared features suggest a similar effect on muscle metabolism due to parathyroid hormone excess and vitamin D deficiency.
	• Primary hyperparathyroidism is a common cause of hypercalcemia and hypomagnesia, which can cause a nonnecrotizing proximal myopathy. It can also lead to hypophosphatemia, which can rarely result in a necrotizing myopathy associated with rhabdomyolysis.
	• Myopathy (with normal or elevated CK) is rare in primary hypoparathyroidism. The most common muscle manifestation in hypoparathyroidism is due to hypocalcemia, resulting in tetany (hyperexcitability of nerve axons leading to repetitive firing) and subsequent muscle cramps or spasm (carpopedal or laryngeal).
	• Management of myopathies related to parathyroid disorders requires treatment of the primary cause, eg, removal of a hyperfunctioning adenoma in primary hyperparathyroidism; vitamin D and calcium replacement in osteomalacia; removal of hyperfunctioning parathyroid glands and treatment with cholecalciferol (D3) or kidney transplant in secondary hyperparathyroidism due to chronic kidney failure.

Historical note and terminology

Muscle weakness is common in disorders of calcium and phosphorous homeostasis, including primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism, osteomalacia, hypoparathyroidism, and other abnormalities of bone metabolism. The association of myopathy with hyperparathyroidism and osteomalacia was recognized over a century ago by German physician Karl Hirschberg and German pathologist Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen (1833–1910) (54; 132). Vicale reintroduced this association in the modern era, describing three patients with severe proximal weakness, waddling gait, and extensive bone disease (131). Patten and colleagues thought that the clinical features, electromyography, and muscle biopsies from weak patients with hyperparathyroidism reflected a neurogenic disorder (98). However, others disputed this and suspected a myopathic basis for the weakness (76; 68).

German pathologist Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen (1833-1910)

(Courtesy of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Public domain.)

In contrast to hyperparathyroidism and osteomalacia, hypoparathyroidism has only rarely been associated with overt clinical myopathy (135; 124; 71; 136). Patients can have elevated serum creatine kinase levels and myopathic features in electrophysiologic or histologic studies, which may be secondary to tetany or seizures resulting from hypocalcemia (56; 133; 118; 68; 01; 107). However, objective weakness is uncommon (68).

Clinical manifestations

Presentation and course

The myopathy associated with primary hyperparathyroidism or osteomalacia is characterized by gradual onset of symmetric proximal weakness with atrophy (121; 122; 74; 63; 96; 108). However, the main symptom is often localized bone tenderness or pain (involving the spine, rib cage, pelvis, and shoulder girdle), or generalized aches (26). The combination of proximal muscle weakness and bone or muscle pain may be the presenting complaint in up to 50% of patients with primary hyperparathyroidism (75; 90). Significant leg weakness leads to a waddling gait or even the inability to walk in some patients (89). In children, a Gowers sign may be present (04). The nonnecrotizing limb-girdle myopathy is associated with serum hypercalcemia and hypomagnesium in hyperparathyroidism, whereas hypophosphatemia can cause a necrotizing limb-girdle myopathy (66). Patten and colleagues reported several patients with bulbar involvement as evidenced by hoarseness, dysphagia, and fasciculations (98). Rarely, patients have severe neck extensor weakness (10; 113), with “dropped head” syndrome or severe respiratory muscle involvement (42; 95). The basis for the weakness in osteomalacia is not entirely clear. Cramps and paresthesia are reported in approximately 50% of patients (128). Weakness does not correlate closely with calcium, phosphorus, or parathyroid concentrations.

Table 1. Clinical Manifestations of Osteomalacia

	• Generalized fatigue
	• Bone tenderness, bone pain, and generalized aches with antalgic gait (which may be severe and may interfere with confrontational muscle strength testing)
	• Cranial nerves normal (except possibly involuntary, fine, tremulous movements of tongue)
	• Myopathy with slight or moderate muscle wasting, symmetric proximal weakness (pelvic girdle more affected than shoulder girdle), neck flexor weakness, and waddling gait
	• Myalgias
	• No fasciculations
	• Reflexes normal or brisk, possibly with spread
	• Sensation normal (although one group of authors report decreased vibratory and pain sensation)
	• Polyarthralgias
	• Bone fractures
	• Hypocalcemia
	• Perioral/acral paresthesias
	• Carpopedal spasm
	• Chvostek sign (ie, ipsilateral facial muscle contraction induced by slight tap of facial nerve anterior to external auditory meatus)
	• Trousseau sign (ie, elicitation of carpopedal spasm and acral paresthesias by compression of upper arm with a tourniquet or blood pressure cuff)
	• Rarely seizures
	• Hypophosphatemia
	• Palpitations
	• Decreased cardiac output
	• Dyspnea/orthopnea
	• Rarely rhabdomyolysis (with/without renal failure)

Besides proximal weakness and atrophy, examination of patients with hyperparathyroidism often reveals brisk muscle stretch reflexes with flexor plantar responses, and there are rare reports of spasticity and extensor plantar responses (18; 41). In addition, 29% to 57% of patients experience a stocking-glove distribution of reduced pain or vibratory sensation and decreased muscle stretch reflexes suggestive of an underlying peripheral neuropathy (98; 128). Patten and colleagues also described abnormal tongue movements reminiscent of fasciculations (98), but others have not found this feature. Neurobehavioral abnormalities (ie, memory loss, poor concentration, personality changes, inappropriate behavior, anxiety, and hallucinations) can also occur. Rheumatological symptoms such as arthralgias and myalgias can also be seen (84).

Older patients with primary hyperparathyroidism may have significant functional deficits, including slower performance of repeated sit-to-stand and slower gait speed that may affect safety and quality of life (88). Non-neurologic presentations of primary hyperparathyroidism can include pathologic fractures, recurrent renal stones, acute pancreatitis, or solitary bone swelling (90).

Secondary hyperparathyroidism most often occurs in patients with chronic renal failure, who can develop weakness similar to that observed in primary hyperparathyroidism and osteomalacia. Lower extremity weakness predominates early with eventual progression to involvement of all four limbs. Rare cases of arterial calcification with secondary muscle necrosis and myoglobinuria have been reported in this condition (105).

Vitamin D deficiency has also been associated with muscle symptoms, including myalgia and proximal myopathy (130). This is a significant public health issue, given the high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency; the symptoms often respond favorably to replacement therapy (55). In 25 patients with chronic kidney disease on dialysis, there was a correlation between reduced quadriceps muscle strength and increased fall risk with low levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels, but not with levels of parathyroid hormone (14). This was further supported by several meta-analyses. Stockton and colleagues concluded that muscle strength improved if supplemented with 1000 IU of vitamin D in individuals with a baseline serum 25(OH)D level of less than 25 nmol/L (126). In 2014, Beaudart and colleagues also found a small but statistically significant improvement in muscle strength with vitamin D supplementation (09).

Myopathy secondary to hypoparathyroidism is unusual, although perioral and distal paresthesia and tetany secondary to hypocalcemia do occur. Chvostek sign (ie, ipsilateral facial contraction when tapping the facial nerve at the external auditory meatus) and Trousseau sign (ie, thumb adduction, metacarpophalangeal joint flexion, and interphalangeal joint extension after temporary occlusion of the brachial artery) may be demonstrated in hypocalcemic patients. Severe tetany can cause stridor and apnea due to vocal cord involvement, as well as bronchospasm, diaphragmatic chest wall contraction (21; 78), and occasionally, tetanic seizures (73).

There are only a few reports of mild proximal weakness in patients with hypoparathyroidism (135; 124; 71; 136), and only a small series of cases of myopathy or myalgia with raised serum creatine kinase (CK) associated with hypocalcemia and hypoparathyroidism (53; 127; 25). A nonnecrotizing myopathy may be a partial cause of the muscle weakness seen in some patients (31). Back pain and stiffness are often major complaints, and rare cases of hypoparathyroidism have been misdiagnosed as ankylosing spondylitis in part due to paravertebral ligamentous calcification or ossification and the presence of syndesmophytes (65).

A case of idiopathic hypoparathyroidism with proximal myopathy, high CK, low calcium, and EMG evidence of myokymia and neuromyotonia has been reported (138). There are also reports of painless myoglobinuria without objective weakness or tetany (01; 91). Patients with Kearns-Sayre syndrome, a mitochondrial encephalomyopathy due to sporadic large-scale mitochondrial DNA deletions, may also develop endocrinopathies including hypoparathyroidism (111).

Prognosis and complications

Because more extensive blood chemistries are now performed routinely, hyperparathyroidism is diagnosed earlier than in the past, and patients are frequently asymptomatic or only mildly affected (68). In symptomatic patients, medical or surgical (parathyroidectomy) treatment is effective, and improvement of muscle strength is usually noticeable within a few months (98; 68; 92; 93).

Clinical vignette

Case 1. Primary hyperparathyroidism and primary vitamin D deficiency (Barohn). A 76-year-old man was referred for a 1-year history of progressive weakness. He complained of difficulty climbing stairs, arising from chairs, and lifting objects over his head. In addition, he noted hoarseness of his voice over the past year.

Parathyroid myopathy (hypophonia)

Parathyroid myopathy patient's voice is hoarse. (Contributed by Dr. Richard Barohn.)

Evaluation by an otolaryngologist was unrevealing. The patient denied weakness in his hands or feet, ptosis, diplopia or blurred vision, dysarthria, dysphagia, difficulty chewing, nasal regurgitation, fluctuation in muscle strength or voice, myalgia, numbness, or paresthesia.

Past medical history was remarkable for prostate cancer, which was treated with radical prostatectomy and bilateral orchiectomies. There was no evidence of tumor recurrence. He also had chronic renal insufficiency that was attributed to hypertension. There was no family history of neuromuscular disorders. He denied alcohol or tobacco use. Medications included propranolol, diltiazem, and aspirin.

Examination revealed a normal mental status. Extraocular movements were normal. There was no ptosis. Face, jaw, palate, and tongue strength were normal. He had decreased muscle bulk in his shoulder and hip girdles. Fasciculations were not evident. Manual muscle-strength testing demonstrated symmetric proximal upper and lower extremity weakness.

Parathyroid myopathy (proximal muscle weakness)

Patient with parathyroid myopathy has proximal greater than distal muscle weakness, as is generally seen in myopathies. (Contributed by Dr. Richard Barohn.)

He had the following Medical Research Council grades: orbicularis oculi 5, neck flexors 4, neck extensors 5, shoulder abductors 4, elbow flexors and extensors 4, wrist flexors and extensors 5-, hand intrinsics 5, hip flexors 4-, hip extensors 4-, hip abductors 4-, knee flexors 4, knee extensors 5, ankle dorsiflexors 4+, and plantar flexors 5. Complex motor skills were intact. He had diminished pain and vibratory sensation in his feet to the distal one third of his lower legs bilaterally. His gait was slightly wide-based, but he was able to walk on his heels and toes. Muscle stretch reflexes were 1+ at his biceps, triceps, brachioradialis, and knees, but unobtainable at the ankles.

Nerve conduction studies demonstrated a mild sensorimotor polyneuropathy with unobtainable sural sensory nerve action potentials (SNAPs), borderline amplitudes, and mildly prolonged distal latencies of the median, ulnar, and radial SNAPs. He had low-amplitude peroneal compound motor action potentials (CMAPs), borderline-amplitude median CMAPs, but normal ulnar and posterior tibial CMAPs as well as normal distal motor latencies and conduction velocities. There was no evidence of abnormal decrement or increment on repetitive nerve stimulation. EMG of weak proximal muscles demonstrated normal insertional activity and no abnormal spontaneous activity (ie, fibrillations and fasciculations were not present).

Parathyroid myopathy (EMG of normal insertional activity)

EMG showing normal insertional activity in a patient with parathyroid myopathy. (Contributed by Dr. Richard Barohn.)

There was a mixture of small and large motor unit potentials, but the overall size on quantitation of 20 motor unit potentials was normal. However, the motor unit potentials did appear to recruit early.

Parathyroid myopathy (EMG)

No abnormal spontaneous activity is present. There is a mixture of small and large motor-unit potentials, normal in size. Early recruitment. (Contributed by Dr. Richard Barohn.)

Laboratory evaluation was remarkable for anemia (hematocrit 30%) and chronic renal insufficiency (blood urea nitrogen 32 mg/dL and creatinine 1.9 mg/dL). In addition, he had a low serum albumin level of 2.0 g/dL. Of note, the alkaline phosphatase and electrolytes were normal, including a calcium level of 8.4 mg/dL and phosphate level of 4.3 mg/dL. However, an ionized calcium level (correcting for the hypoalbuminemia) was mildly elevated at 5.52 mg/dL (normal 4.48 to 5.20 mg/dL). Intact parathyroid hormone was elevated at 106.5 pg/mL (normal 10 to 65 pg/dL). His 25-hydroxy vitamin D level was low at 8.6 ng/mL (normal range for the reference lab was 16 to 74 ng/mL), and the 1,25 dihydroxy vitamin D level was not measurable. Other pertinent blood work revealed “normal" serum immunofixation, fasting glucose, creatine kinase, thyroid and liver function tests, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, rheumatoid factor, antinuclear antibody, B12, folate, and CSF studies (protein 32 mg/dL). Acetylcholine receptor antibodies were not present. Nuclear medicine scans demonstrated increased uptake in the left inferior parathyroid gland.

This patient had the unusual combination of both primary hyperparathyroidism and primary vitamin D deficiency. The patient underwent excision of the parathyroid gland and was started on vitamin D replacement. One year after treatment, he had normal strength in his arms but was still hoarse and had mild weakness in his legs.

Case 2. Severe osteomalacia after bariatric surgery (02). A 39-year-old man who had laparoscopic biliopancreatic diversion 10 years prior to presentation was not compliant with vitamin and mineral supplements for over 9 years, which led to vitamin D deficiency, secondary hyperparathyroidism, myopathy, muscle atrophy, fragility fractures, hypocalcemia, and other electrolyte disturbances.

Approximately 2 years after the surgery, he complained of fatigue and proximal muscle weakness. By 3 years after the surgery, he complained of numbness of his extremities, leg tremors, hand spasms, and progressive limb weakness, causing gait difficulty for which he started using walking aids. Around that time, he sought medical advice from a general practitioner who provided reassurance and muscle relaxants without further evaluation. His condition worsened until he became completely bedridden 5 years after surgery. He also complained of confusion, memory loss, disturbed sleep, daytime somnolence, headaches, dysphagia with solid food, constipation, urinary incontinence, and bedsores. On evaluation, he looked ill and in pain, with loose hair, stomatitis, glossitis, and general skin dryness. He was alert but confused. Musculoskeletal examination revealed general muscle wasting and left knee and right ankle deformities. Neurologic examination revealed 1/5 power in the legs and 3/5 power in the arms, with intact sensory function. Laboratory studies revealed severe vitamin D deficiency with severe hypocalcemia. Secondary hyperparathyroidism was discovered: calcium 0.92 mmol/L (reference range: 2.1–2.6 mmol/L); phosphorus 0.56 mmol/L (reference range: 0.81–1.58 mmol/L); alkaline phosphatase 1017 IU/L (reference range: 50–136 IU/L); vitamin D3 0.1 ng/mL (reference range: 30–100 ng/mL); parathyroid hormone 59.5 pmol/L (reference range: 1.6–7 pmol/L). X-ray studies revealed multiple fragility fractures.

Fragility fractures in severe osteomalacia (1)

Left shoulder radiograph showing reduced bone density with a healed left clavicular fracture and a healed proximal humerus fracture (arrows). (Source: Alarfaj HM, Alrasheed WY, Alsulaiman SA, Almulhem FT, Almaideni MF, Alkuwait...
Fragility fractures in severe osteomalacia (2)

Right shoulder radiograph showing a healed right proximal humerus fracture in the varus position with a deformed scapular neck consistent with an old fracture (arrows). (Source: Alarfaj HM, Alrasheed WY, Alsulaiman SA, Almulhem...
Fragility fractures in severe osteomalacia (3)

Chest radiograph showing healed right-sided multiple rib fractures (arrow). (Source: Alarfaj HM, Alrasheed WY, Alsulaiman SA, Almulhem FT, Almaideni MF, Alkuwaity KW. A case report of severe osteomalacia in a young patient afte...
Fragility fractures in severe osteomalacia (4)

Pelvic radiograph showing generalized reduced bone density consistent with metabolic disease with healed bilateral proximal femoral fractures in the varus position (arrows). (Source: Alarfaj HM, Alrasheed WY, Alsulaiman SA, Alm...
Fragility fractures in severe osteomalacia (5)

Pelvic computed tomography revealing a diffuse prominent trabeculation of the bone associated with osteopenia and minimal expansion as well as multiple old fractures associated with pelvic deformity due to very soft bones (arro...
Fragility fractures in severe osteomalacia (6)

Lumbar spine MRI revealing H-shaped vertebrae and fatty changes in the posterior paraspinal muscles (arrow), abnormal bone marrow signal intensity of the spine associated with metabolic disease. (Source: Alarfaj HM, Alrasheed W...

After 10 months of treatment of vitamin D deficiency and correction of his electrolyte imbalance, his memory function and strength improved. He was able to start standing on his legs, move with walking aids, roll over to each side of his bed, feed himself, and open a can.

Case 3. Parathyroid carcinoma with myopathy (29). A 24-year-old woman who presented with proximal weakness was found to have hypercalcemia. Her serum corrected total calcium was 15 mg/dl (reference range: 8.5–10.3 mg/dl), serum phosphate 2.3 mg/dl (reference range: 2.5–4.5 mg/dl), intact PTH 118 pg/ml (reference range: 20–80), vitamin D 15 ng/ml (low), and urinary calcium/urinary creatinine ratio 2.1 (reference range: 0.1–0.2). Her contrast-enhanced neck CT revealed a well-defined mass posterior to the right lobe of the thyroid measuring 2.6 cm × 2.5 cm × 2.9 cm and an enhancing lesion in the right maxillary sinus, measuring 1.9 cm × 2.3 cm in size. She was started on vitamin D supplementation and underwent right lower focal parathyroidectomy, with normalization of her PTH levels following surgery. Surgical pathology revealed an atypical parathyroid adenoma. She was treated with calcium and vitamin D. Her follow-up was initially uneventful.

Right superior parathyroid adenoma on contrast-enhanced neck CT

(Source: Dematapitiya C, Perera C, Pathmanathan S, et al. Parathyroid carcinoma during pregnancy: a novel pathogenic CDC73 mutation - a case report. BMC Endocr Disord 2022;22[1]:259. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Internation...
Enhancing lesion in the right maxillary sinus on contrast-enhanced CT of the paranasal sinuses

(Source: Dematapitiya C, Perera C, Pathmanathan S, et al. Parathyroid carcinoma during pregnancy: a novel pathogenic CDC73 mutation - a case report. BMC Endocr Disord 2022;22[1]:259. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Internation...

She became pregnant 1 year following her surgery and presented with a rapidly enhancing neck mass of 1-week duration at 16 weeks’ gestational age. Laboratory studies suggested recurrent primary hyperparathyroidism: serum corrected total calcium 10.8 mg/dl (reference range: 8.5–10.3 mg/dl), serum phosphate 2.0 mg/dl (reference range: 2.5–4.5 mg/dl), vitamin D 45 ng/ml (normal), and intact PTH 540 pg/ml (reference range: 20–80 pg/ml). She had an elevated spot urine calcium to creatinine ratio of 1.5 but no evidence of nephrolithiasis.

Patient presenting with a rapidly progressive neck lump

(Source: Dematapitiya C, Perera C, Pathmanathan S, et al. Parathyroid carcinoma during pregnancy: a novel pathogenic CDC73 mutation - a case report. BMC Endocr Disord 2022;22[1]:259. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Internation...

Neck ultrasound revealed a well-defined discrete hypoechoic nodule superior to the thyroid isthmus, which was confirmed by noncontrast MRI of the neck. She underwent an uncomplicated second trimester parathyroid tumor excision, with normalization of postoperative PTH levels. Surgical pathology revealed a parathyroid carcinoma with vascular and capsular invasion. Her genetic studies revealed a novel frameshift mutation of the CDC73 gene. With calcium and vitamin D supplementation, her ionized calcium and PTH levels remained normal throughout the remainder of her pregnancy. She had an uncomplicated cesarean section at 37 weeks.

Tumor histology with evidence of vascular invasion

Case 4. A 38-year-old woman complained of progressive, predominantly proximal weakness and wasting of all four limbs for 3 months. She could not walk without assistance. After admission, she was anxious and developed repeated vomiting, increased thirst, frequent urination, and recurrent colicky upper abdominal pain. She had no family history of endocrine or neoplastic diseases. A small non-tender round nodule measuring approximately 2 × 1.5 cm was noted over the right thyroid lobe. She had wasting of proximal muscles of all four limbs, especially of the legs and particularly the quadriceps. No fasciculations were noted. Muscle power (MRC scale) was grade 3 proximally and grade 5 distally in all four limbs. Gait was waddling and Gowers' sign was present. Muscle stretch reflexes were exaggerated, and the plantar reflexes were flexor.

Admission laboratory studies showed severe hypercalcemia with marked elevation of intact parathyroid hormone levels: corrected serum calcium 16 mg/dL (reference range: 8.5–10.5 mg/dL), intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) 677.3 pg/mL (reference range: 7–53 pg/mL), and inorganic phosphate 2.3 mg/dL (reference range: 2.3–4.7 mg/dL). She was treated with oral and intravenous fluids, injectable proton pump inhibitors, and intravenous zoledronic acid. Her electrocardiogram was normal. After 5 days, serum calcium level dropped to 10 mg/dL, but the iPTH level increased to 1374.2 pg/mL. Ultrasonography of the neck revealed two nodular lesions at the right lobe of the thyroid gland: one was a large (27 × 24 mm) complex nodule in the lower pole and the other was a smaller (17 × 14 mm) nodule in the upper pole. Tc99m sestamibi scan showed increased radiotracer uptake in the area of the right thyroid gland suggestive of parathyroid adenoma/carcinoma.

Calcium level variation over time

Variation of calcium levels (mg/dL) over time (days). (Source: Huq MR, Hossain A, Hannan MA, Anwar MB, Khan AM. Proximal myopathy with hypercalcemic crisis and papillary thyroid carcinoma in a 38-year-old female. Cureus 2021;13...
iPTH level variation over time

Variation of iPTH levels over time (days). Legend: iPTH: intact parathyroid hormone. (Source: Huq MR, Hossain A, Hannan MA, Anwar MB, Khan AM. Proximal myopathy with hypercalcemic crisis and papillary thyroid carcinoma in a 38-...
Ultrasonography of the thyroid and parathyroid glands

(A) Right side: an irregular hypoechoic nodular lesion (arrows), measuring approximately 17 × 14 mm with foci of calcification, in the upper pole of the right lobe of the thyroid gland suggestive of adenoma or carcinoma of the ...
SPECT-CT and Tc-99m sestamibi scintigraphy of parathyroid glands

Transaxial (A), sagittal (B), and coronal (C) perspectives, showing (arrows) focal area of increased radiotracer concentration in the right side of the neck at the level of C5-C7 vertebra suggestive of parathyroid adenoma or ca...

A skeletal survey was normal. Renal and thyroid function tests, additional endocrine screening tests (to assess for multiple endocrine neoplasia), serum amylase, creatine kinase, blood sugar, and renal and abdominal imaging revealed no abnormalities. Serum alkaline phosphatase level was slightly increased at 178 U/L (30–120 U/L). Nerve conduction velocities were normal. Electromyography showed full recruitment, mixed short and normal duration, small amplitude polyphasic potentials in different muscles (quadriceps, biceps brachii, etc.), consistent with myopathic potentials.

After resection of the nodules, two biopsied specimens were sent for histopathology: the larger nodule in the lower pole was diagnosed as papillary thyroid carcinoma, and the smaller nodule in the upper pole was diagnosed as parathyroid adenoma. Post-surgery serum calcium and iPTH levels were 9.0 mg/dL and 41.9 pg/mL, respectively. She was again referred for total thyroidectomy.

One month after surgery, her weakness was improved: muscle power was grade 4 proximally and grade 5 distally.

Biological basis

Etiology and pathogenesis

Parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone–related protein. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is an endocrine peptide found exclusively in the parathyroid glands, whereas parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) has endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine actions and is expressed in a wide range of tissues and organs (125). PTH and PTHrP share the initial 13 amino acid residues at the N-terminus and bind to the same type 1 PTH receptor (PTH1R). The two principal signaling pathways of PTH1R are the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and phosphatidylinositol pathways. An abnormal increase in PTH production can occur in primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism, whereas PTHrP can be produced in large quantities by solid organ malignancies.

Parathyroid hormone, parathyroid hormone-related protein, and binding to type 1 parathyroid hormone receptor

(A) Amino acid sequences of the N-terminal region of PTH and PTHrP. The shared sequences with PTH are indicated by dark purple circles on PTHrP. (B) Binding of PTH and PTHrP to a G-protein-coupled receptor. (C) The two principa...

Calcium and phosphorus homeostasis. Calcium and phosphorus homeostasis require a complex interaction of intestinal, renal, hepatic, endocrine, skin, and skeletal functions (68). PTH regulates blood calcium concentration by promoting bone resorption, reducing renal clearance of calcium, and enhancing conversion of 25-hydroxy vitamin D to the active form, 1,25 dihydroxy vitamin D. In addition, intestinal calcium absorption is increased under the influence of vitamin D (109; 27).

PTH plays a central role in mineral homeostasis

Kidney and bone are the traditional targets of this hormone. When calcium levels in the blood decrease, parathyroid glands release PTH, which promotes calcium mobilization from bone, reabsorption in the kidney, and absorption i...
PTH secretion and regulation

Legend: PTH = Parathyroid Hormone; Ca2+ = Calcium; cAMP = Cyclic Adenosine Mono Phosphate. (Source: Dawale K, Agrawal A. Parathyroid hormone secretion and related syndromes. Cureus 2022;14[10]:e30251. Diagram by Ketaki Dawale. ...

There are several forms of vitamin D: (1) vitamin D3 or cholecalciferol, which is derived from the skin; (2) vitamin D2 or ergocalciferol, which is dietary and absorbed through the intestines; and (3) 25-hydroxy vitamin D, which is made in the liver and converted to the more potent metabolite 1,25 dihydroxy vitamin D in the kidney. Increased PTH leads to an increased synthesis of 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D, hypercalcemia, and hypophosphatemia. Serum phosphorus levels are also determined by diet, intestinal absorption, and renal excretion. Persistently elevated PTH results in resorption of minerals within bone and replacement by fibrous tissue, a condition termed "osteitis fibrosa" or "osteitis fibrosa cystica" in severe forms (68).

Primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism. Primary hyperparathyroidism is most often caused by a single overactive parathyroid gland, usually an adenoma or, rarely (1%), a carcinoma. In 15% of cases, diffuse hyperplasia of all the parathyroid glands is the culprit (102). Rare genetic disorders such as multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 can also cause primary hyperparathyroidism (48). Effects of elevated parathyroid hormone commonly include hypercalcemia, osteopenia, and nephrolithiasis, although the most common presentation is of asymptomatic laboratory abnormalities.

Secondary hyperparathyroidism is a condition in which a disease outside of the parathyroid glands causes the parathyroid glands to become enlarged and hyperactive. The most common causes of secondary hyperparathyroidism are chronic renal failure or vitamin D deficiency. Patients with chronic kidney disease have a high rate of severe vitamin D deficiency that is exacerbated by the reduced ability to convert 25-hydroxy vitamin D into the active form, 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D. The lack of the active form of vitamin D causes decreased intestinal absorption of calcium. In addition, decreased renal phosphorus clearance causes increased serum phosphorous that binds and sequesters calcium. Both lead to hypocalcemia and signal to increase parathyroid hormone secretion. Severe vitamin D deficiency also leads to secondary hyperparathyroidism and osteomalacia. Osteomalacia ("adult rickets") is characterized by defective mineralization of osteoid, the unmineralized bone matrix synthesized by osteoblasts. Other causes of secondary hyperparathyroidism include gastrointestinal bypass surgery and severe celiac or Crohn disease.

In addition to acquired forms, there are hereditary forms of primary hyperparathyroidism (48) and of vitamin D deficiency and osteomalacia (45). An increased incidence of usually asymptomatic secondary hyperparathyroidism associated with vitamin D deficiency has been found in up to 17.5% of patients with myotonic dystrophy type 1, which correlated with the CTG expansion size (94). Only one of 17 patients was symptomatic and had surgery for an adenoma.

Tumor-induced osteomalacia is a rare paraneoplastic syndrome caused by mesenchymal tumors that secrete fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), which acts on the proximal renal tubules to decrease phosphate reabsorption and also decreases the conversion of 25(OH)D to 1,25(OH)D, which further negatively impacts serum phosphate by decreasing phosphate absorption from the intestinal tract (61). Standard treatment for adults is oral phosphate and 1,25(OH)2D. The maximum dosage of oral phosphate may be limited by development of secondary hyperparathyroidism, which may progress to tertiary hyperparathyroidism if secondary hyperparathyroidism is not adequately addressed.

Pathophysiology of tumor-induced osteomalacia

Legend: 1,25(OH)2D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D; FGF23, fibroblast growth factor 23; NPT2, type II sodium phosphate cotransporter; PMT, phosphaturic mesenchymal tumor. (Source: Jan de Beur SM, Minisola S, Xia WB, et al. Global guid...

Hypoparathyroidism. Hypoparathyroidism is seen in various conditions, including complications of surgery (eg, thyroidectomy, parathyroidectomy), hypomagnesemia or hypermagnesemia, irradiation, drugs, sepsis, infiltrative diseases of the parathyroid, and autoimmune, hereditary, or developmental disorders (33). Decreased parathyroid hormone results in diminished synthesis of 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D, hypocalcemia, and hyperphosphatemia. Osteomalacia can also develop in association with hypoparathyroidism.

Osteomalacia. The accumulation of unmineralized bone matrix leads to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. As noted above, osteomalacia can complicate hyperparathyroidism and rarely hypoparathyroidism. Other etiologies of osteomalacia include vitamin D deficiency, inadequate nutrition, phosphate depletion, acidosis, and renal tubular disorders (45; 130). Vitamin D deficiency is common among the elderly who live in northern latitudes and need to cover their skin, and it should be evaluated in older individuals presenting with weakness and premature fatigue (99).

Table 2. Causes of Osteomalacia

Impaired calcium metabolism
	• Dietary vitamin D deficiency (nutritional osteomalacia)
		- Low dietary intake of vitamin D (115; 59; 44)
		- Malabsorption
			-- Post-gastrectomy (67)
			-- Gluten-sensitive enteropathy (celiac disease) (16)
			-- Intestinal, hepatic, biliary, or pancreatic disease
			-- Short gut (or short bowel) syndrome (36; 100)
			-- Parenteral nutrition
	• Impaired vitamin D metabolism
		- Inadequate exposure to sunlight (eg, housebound elderly)
			-- Enhanced metabolism of vitamin D and 25-hydroxyvitamin D to inactive compounds
			-- Anticonvulsants (phenytoin, phenobarbital, primidone) (83; 30; 110; 72)
			-- Rifampin
		- Impaired formation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D
			-- Liver disease
			-- Isoniazid
		- Impaired formation of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D
			-- Renal failure
			-- Renal tubular disorders (79)
			-- Hypoparathyroidism
			-- Pseudohypoparathyroidism
			-- Drugs (eg, ketoconazole, isoniazid)
		- Inherited and other rare conditions
Impaired phosphate metabolism
	• Treatment with phosphate binders (eg, aluminum hydroxide in patients with renal failure) (06; 58)
	• Fanconi syndrome (79)
	• Inherited (116; 120; 106; 137)
	• Other rare conditions (103)
Defective bone matrix (toxic effects on bone mineralization)
	• Aluminum (06; 58; 17)
	• Bisphosphonates
	• Fluoride
	• Vitamin A (excess or deficiency) (retinoic acid, which the body makes from vitamin A, stimulates osteoclasts but suppresses osteoblasts)

Myopathy in primary hyperparathyroidism and osteomalacia. There are two mechanisms causing the weakness and fatigability seen in primary hyperparathyroidism and osteomalacia. Elevated levels of parathyroid hormone (possibly related to the accompanying hypophosphatemia) are associated with impaired energy production, transfer, and utilization (05; 68; 125), as well as enhanced muscle proteolysis (39).

The first mechanism, energy metabolism disorder, occurs because parathyroid hormone interferes with the oxidation of long-chain fatty acids by blocking free carnitine from being transformed into acylcarnitine through the inhibition of carnitine palmitoyltransferase activity. Thus, the acylcarnitine supply in the mitochondria is decreased and energy production begins the fail (123).

Excess PTH and PTHrP can result in protein-energy wasting, malnutrition, and cachexia (125). PTH and PTHrP can stimulate the expression of thermogenic genes causing adipose tissue browning by binding to PTH1R and activating cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase A in white adipose tissue. This results in an increase in resting energy expenditure, loss of muscle and fat mass, and weight loss.

White adipose tissue browning from increased parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related protein

Abbreviations: PTH, parathyroid hormone; PTH1R, type 1 PTH receptor; PTHrP, parathyroid hormone-related protein.

(Source: Srisuwarn P, Disthabanchong S. Role of parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related ...

The second mechanism is through catabolism of skeletal muscle, which leads to atrophy. This may be the result of cyclic AMP (cAMP) activation of calcium channels, initiated by parathyroid hormone, raising the intracellular calcium to a level sufficient to increase activation of intracellular proteases, thus, tipping the molecular homeostatic balance in favor of muscle degradation (07).

In addition, parathyroid hormone may diminish the sensitivity of contractile myofibrillary proteins to calcium and activate a cytoplasmic protease, thus, impairing the bioenergetics of muscle (129). Interestingly, calcium and phosphorus levels do not correlate well with the clinical severity of muscle weakness (35; 122; 98).

Vitamin D may also play a role in muscle weakness and has been shown to have a direct effect on muscle: it accelerates amino acid incorporation into muscle proteins (13; 68) and increases the uptake of calcium by sarcoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria (24; 101). In experimental animals with vitamin D deficiency, excitation-contraction coupling is deranged, calcium uptake and storage capacity are impaired, myofibrillar ATPase activity is depressed, and protein synthesis is decreased (12). Vitamin D receptors have been demonstrated in adult mouse skeletal muscles with higher concentrations in precursor cells and younger animals (43). Other in vitro studies demonstrated that 1,25(OH)2D3 increases myocyte precursor differentiation, and vitamin D deficiency accelerates muscle degradation through the ubiquitin pathway (40; 11).

Myopathy in hypoparathyroidism and pseudohypoparathyroidism. The etiology of the rare myopathy associated with hypoparathyroidism is not clear. Elevated serum creatine kinase and mild nonspecific histologic abnormalities on muscle biopsy are generally considered secondary to muscle damage from hypocalcemia, with more severe abnormalities related to the degree and duration of the hypocalcemia (25). Decreased serum calcium concentration causes a shift in the cellular activation potential toward the resting potential (15; 37; 37; 01). Therefore, less current is required to elicit an action potential. Tetany may manifest when plasma calcium plummets to about 6 mg/dL (47). By the same process, central nervous system neuronal hyperexcitability can result in seizures.

The reduced peripheral response to parathyroid hormone in pseudohypoparathyroidism is best described in families with a mutation in the GNAS1 gene coding for the alpha subunit of stimulatory G protein, which couples with the parathyroid hormone receptor to stimulate adenylyl cyclase (08).

Differential diagnosis

Confusing conditions

Osteomalacia is often unrecognized and allowed to progress, with patients being given incorrect and misleading diagnoses (eg, fibromyalgia, psychoneurosis, etc.). The differential diagnosis is summarized in the following table based on initial misdiagnoses in reported cases.

Table 3. Differential Diagnosis for Osteomalacia

	• Osteoporosis
	• Degenerative joint disease
	• Rheumatoid arthritis
	• Ankylosing spondylitis
	• Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH)
	• Paget disease
	• Metastatic bone disease (eg, secondary to some radiologic changes)
	• Multiple myeloma
	• Polymyositis
	• Motor neuron disease (eg, weakness, wasting, and brisk reflexes)
	• Muscular dystrophy
	• Polymyalgia rheumatica (eg, shoulder/hip girdle pain and "weakness")
	• Fibromyalgia
	• Psychoneurotic disorders (eg, diffuse pain and fatigue with little clinical)

The pattern of weakness (ie, proximal greater than distal weakness and legs worse than arms) is not specific for parathyroid-related myopathies and can be observed in other endocrine disorders (eg, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, Cushing syndrome) and with administration or surreptitious use of some hormone medications (eg, levothyroxine, cortisone, prednisone). History of corticosteroid use, thyroid function tests, electrolytes, and cortisol levels can help in distinguishing these endocrine myopathies. Polymyositis and dermatomyositis are associated with proximal limb weakness but, in contrast to parathyroid myopathies, serum creatine kinase levels are usually elevated, EMG demonstrates increased insertional and spontaneous activity (fibrillation potentials, complex repetitive discharges), and muscle biopsies reveal inflammation. Less common causes of proximal weakness in older individuals include limb-girdle muscular dystrophies, Lambert-Eaton syndrome, and myasthenia gravis. These disorders should readily be distinguished by clinical and family history, neuromuscular examination, electrophysiologic testing, muscle histology, and ancillary tests (eg, edrophonium test, acetylcholine receptor antibody titer, P/Q voltage-gated calcium channel antibody titers, and genetic testing).

Finally, there are a few cases of hyperparathyroidism mimicking amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, characterized by spasticity, hyperreflexia, and extensor plantar responses in combination with lower motor neuron weakness (98; 18; 41). Some of these patients improved following resection of parathyroid adenomas. However, with appropriate clinical evaluation these patients never would have fulfilled criteria for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (60). The presence of hyperparathyroidism in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis appears to be coincidental, and patients do not improve following surgical resection. In one study, five patients who met El Escorial criteria for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis were found to have hyperparathyroidism secondary to parathyroid adenomas (60). Resection of the adenomas failed to alter the fatal course of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in these patients. The previously reported patients who improved with surgical resection of the parathyroid adenomas most likely had the associated myopathy, not amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Diagnostic workup

Blood and urine studies. In osteomalacia, serum calcium and phosphate may be decreased or normal, serum alkaline phosphatase increased or normal, serum parathyroid hormone increased, serum phosphate variably low (depending on the degree of secondary hyperparathyroidism), plasma 25-hydroxy vitamin D decreased, and plasma 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D decreased or normal. Elevated serum alkaline phosphatase levels are present in 80% to 90% of cases and can serve as a useful screening tool for osteomalacia (112). Creatine kinase levels are typically normal but may be slightly increased in a minority of patients. Other blood and urine studies that may be helpful and that should be considered include serum creatinine, hemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume, urinalysis, and 24-hour urine calcium and phosphorus concentrations. Urinary excretion of calcium is low (except in cases secondary to renal tubular acidosis), whereas excretion of phosphate is high.

In hyperparathyroidism, serum calcium levels are usually elevated and serum phosphate levels are low, whereas urinary excretion of calcium is low and urinary excretion of phosphate is high. In patients with concurrent hypoalbuminemia, serum calcium levels may be normal, and in these cases, ionized calcium should be measured and is typically elevated. Increased urinary excretion of cyclic adenosine monophosphate in the presence of hypercalcemia is indicative of hyperparathyroidism. In primary hyperparathyroidism, serum parathyroid hormone levels are elevated. In hyperparathyroidism secondary to renal failure, 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D levels are low. Noninvasive imaging techniques, such as ultrasound, thallium/technetium scintigraphy, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging, may be useful in localizing abnormal parathyroid glands (92).

Clinical guidelines are now available for the diagnosis and management of tumor-induced osteomalacia (61).

Tumor-induced osteomalacia diagnostic algorithm

Legend: 1,25(OH)2D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D; 25(OH)D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; FGF23, fibroblast growth factor 23; PTH, parathyroid hormone. (a) Perform genetic testing before imaging in children, young a...
Tumor-induced osteomalacia diagnostic and treatment algorithm (continued)

Legend: PTH, parathyroid hormone. (Source: Jan de Beur SM, Minisola S, Xia WB, et al. Global guidance for the recognition, diagnosis, and management of tumor-induced osteomalacia. J Intern Med 2023;293[3]:309-28.)

Figure...

Hypoparathyroidism is associated with low serum parathyroid hormone and calcium levels, low serum magnesium, and high serum phosphate levels. Although serum creatine kinase is usually normal in hyperparathyroidism, in hypoparathyroidism creatine kinase levels may be elevated. Muscle biopsies may reveal nonspecific myopathic features that may reflect muscle damage secondary to episodes of tetany (68). Decreased glycogen phosphorylase activity of muscle biopsy specimens has also been described (129). Electrocardiogram should routinely be performed to monitor for prolonged QT interval. Head computed tomography may incidentally show basal ganglia calcifications.

Blood studies in various metabolic bone diseases are summarized in the following table.

Table 4. Blood Studies in Metabolic Bone Diseases

Condition	Serum calcium	Serum phosphate	Serum alkaline phosphate	Serum parathyroid hormone	Plasma 25-hydroxy-vitamin D	Plasma 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D
Vitamin D deficiency	↓↔	↓↔	↑↔	↑	↓	↓↔
Tumor-induced osteomalacia	↓↔	↓	↑	↑↔	↔	↓↔
2° Hyperparathyroidism (chronic kidney disease)	↓	↑	↑	↑	↔	↓
Hypoparathyroidism	↓	↑	↔	↓	↔	↓
Pseudohypoparathyroidism	↓	↑	↔	↑	↔	↓
1° Hyperparathyroidism	↑	↓	↑?	↑	↔	↔
Osteoporosis	↔	↔	↔	↔	↔	↔
Paget disease	↔	↔	↑	↔	↔	↔

Electromyography. In patients with weakness secondary to either hyperparathyroidism or osteomalacia, electromyography may either be normal (20%) or it may show nonspecific myopathic changes (approximately 80%), with brief duration, polyphasic motor unit action potentials of normal or small amplitude with early recruitment (121; 122; 35; 98; 119; 59; 75). There are only rare reports of neurogenic features on EMG, such as fibrillation and fasciculation potentials, large polyphasic motor units, and decreased recruitment (98; 41). Rare reports of myotonic discharges on EMG have been reported (49). Ljunghall and colleagues reported increased jitter on single-fiber EMG but no significant blocking (80). Nerve conduction velocities are typically normal, but slight slowing has been noted in some patients, possibly from other causes (eg, a superimposed axonal sensorimotor neuropathy) (128).

Muscle biopsy. Muscle biopsies usually demonstrate nonspecific myopathic features with nonspecific atrophy or type II fiber atrophy and, in some cases, fatty infiltration, interstitial fibrosis, variation in fiber size, and loss of myofibrils. However, no necrosis of muscle fibers or phagocytosis of fibers has been reported (75).

Roentgenography. In osteomalacia, roentgenography usually demonstrates a decrease in bone density associated with loss of trabeculae, blurring of trabecular margins, and variably thinned cortices (45). X-ray changes in osteomalacia are summarized in the following table.

Table 5. X-Ray Changes of Osteomalacia

	• Generalized demineralization/osteopenia (26)
	• Radiolucent bands perpendicular to bone surfaces ("pseudofractures" or looser zones) (19; 26; 106)
		- Pubic rami
		- Ribs
	• Rachitic changes in extremity bones (eg, upper humerus, tibia, metatarsals)
	• Biconcave ("codfish tail") vertebral bodies (26)
	• Signs of secondary hyperparathyroidism
		- Phalangeal tuft resorption
		- Erosion of shafts of metacarpals/phalanges
	• Fractures

Bone biopsy. In osteomalacic myopathy, a low 25-hydroxy-vitamin D level and characteristic radiographic findings may be adequate for diagnosis. However, a bone biopsy is sometimes recommended to confirm the diagnosis, especially if neither the 25-hydroxy-vitamin D level or radiographic findings are diagnostic. The bone biopsy is performed after double tetracycline labeling of bone, usually with demeclocycline. Demeclocycline (300 mg orally twice a day) is given for 3 days, then no drug for 14 days, and then demeclocycline is again given for 3 more days prior to a biopsy of the iliac crest.

Management

Parathyroidectomy is the treatment of choice for symptomatic patients with primary hyperparathyroidism (92). In patients with adenoma, the affected gland is removed, although additional glands may be biopsied. Patients with hyperplasia of all four glands generally have subtotal (3.5 glands) parathyroidectomies. Medical management of primary hyperparathyroidism is reserved for asymptomatic patients or those with significant perioperative risk (93). Patients with symptomatic hyperparathyroidism who choose not to have surgery or who are poor surgical candidates can be managed with bisphosphonates and cinacalcet (a calcimimetic that mimics the action of calcium on tissues by allosteric activation of the calcium-sensing receptor) (113).

Patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism usually improve with vitamin D and calcium replacement and lowering of phosphate levels or, if they are in end-stage renal failure, with renal transplantation (129; 81). Cinacalcet can also be added if parathyroid hormone levels remain elevated.

Occasionally, parathyroidectomy is performed in patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism: the three main types of surgery for secondary hyperparathyroidism are subtotal parathyroidectomy (ie, removal of three-and-a-half of the parathyroids), four gland excision and autotransplantation (ie, removing all four parathyroid glands and placing a piece of a parathyroid in the forearm), and PTH-guided parathyroidectomy (ie, removing enough parathyroid tissue to bring the intraoperative PTH levels to between 200 and 300).

In one study, the outcome was similar between medical versus surgical treatment for patients with severe secondary hyperparathyroidism (87); 25% (four of 16 patients) had improvement in their muscle weakness with a subtotal parathyroidectomy whereas 40% (two of five patients) improved with a total parathyroidectomy.

The myopathy associated with osteomalacia responds well to vitamin D and calcium replacement and to treatment of the underlying responsible condition (121; 122; 82; 117; 119; 59; 45; 112). Dietary vitamin D deficiency may be treated with 5000 IU vitamin D daily or 50,000 IU vitamin D weekly for several weeks until bones heal, followed by long-term treatment with 400 to 2000 IU daily. Many authors also recommend calcium supplements (eg, 500 mg elemental calcium twice daily), particularly if dietary calcium intake is (or is likely to be) low. Serum alkaline phosphatase levels will initially increase with treatment and then normalize as bones heal.

Malabsorption of vitamin D may require treatment with high doses of vitamin D, eg, 50,000 IU weekly or from 5000 to 50,000 IU daily, with the dose adjusted to maintain normal serum levels of 25-hydroxy-vitamin D. Calcium supplementation (1.0 to 1.5 gm/day of elemental calcium in two to three divided doses) and treatment of the underlying gastrointestinal disorder are also indicated. Vitamin D dosing will need to be adjusted based on the status of the underlying disease that is causing malabsorption, both during and after treatment. If a patient fails to respond to oral vitamin D administration, alternatives include 10,000 IU vitamin D2 intramuscularly daily or calcitriol 0.5 to 1.0 µg daily. Serum and 24-hour urine calcium levels and serum 25-hydroxy-vitamin D levels should be monitored every 3 to 6 months to avoid hypercalcemia. Patients with gluten-sensitive enteropathy may not respond to vitamin D in standard doses (even when administered parenterally) until a gluten-free diet is instituted.

Patients with either vitamin D–resistant hypophosphatemic rickets or tumor-induced osteomalacia (oncogenic osteomalacia) require treatment with phosphate supplementation (1 to 2 gm/day of oral neutral phosphate) and calcitriol until serum phosphate and alkaline phosphatase concentrations normalize.

Patients with anticonvulsant-induced osteomalacia (or rifampin-induced osteomalacia, eg, in patients treated for tuberculosis) can initially be treated with 4000 IU vitamin D daily, but some patients may require up to 100,000 IU vitamin D per meter squared of body surface area per week. If possible, anticonvulsants should be changed to those less likely to be associated with osteomalacia (phenytoin and barbiturates are most strongly associated with osteomalacia).

The rare myopathy associated with hypoparathyroidism also improves following correction of hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia with vitamin D and calcium (135; 136).

Emergency treatment of hypocalcemic tetany requires intravenous infusion of calcium 15 to 20 milliequivalents per kilogram over 4 to 6 hours. When seizures occur, calcium can be given as a slow intravenous push; 10 to 20 mL of 10% calcium gluconate diluted in 50 to 100 mL dextrose or normal saline intravenously over 10 minutes is recommended; however, cardiac and blood pressure monitoring would be necessary (129; 20). The target serum calcium should be between 8 and 9 mg/dL (32), with further titration based on clinical improvement. Concurrent hypomagnesemia must also be addressed with exogenous supplementation. Should stridor be present, close respiratory monitoring is mandatory, with consideration for emergency tracheostomy (a kit should be brought to the bedside) if obstruction occurs. Chronic management with vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol, dose: 25,000 to 150,000 units daily) should begin in conjunction with oral calcium repletion when the patient can safely take oral medication. In some patients who do not respond to vitamin D2, 1,25(OH)2D3 or 1-OH-D3 may be tried (at a higher cost) to circumvent impaired vitamin D activation (129).

Outcomes

Over 80% of 103 consecutive patients with primary hyperparathyroidism who underwent parathyroidectomy improved after surgery (22). In another large series, all 42 patients over the age of 60 benefited from surgery (28). Fifteen of 17 patients with muscle weakness and 14 of 15 patients with premature fatigue reported significant improvement postoperatively (28). Quantitative muscle testing demonstrated mild improvement (3% to 33%) in isokinetic strength or torque in knee extensors and flexors following surgery (51; 134; 62). The increase in isokinetic strength was noted at higher angular velocities, suggesting that therapy had affected predominantly type 2 (fast-twitch) muscle fibers, which, as noted earlier, are selectively involved in the myopathy associated with hyperparathyroidism. Increases in maximal expiratory pressures have also been reported 6 to 12 months postoperatively (69). In one study, postoperative improvement in strength correlated with higher preoperative calcium levels and worse muscle strength (62), but others have not observed such a correlation (51; 134; 69).

Although similar quantitative data are not available for patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism and osteomalacia, subjective and objective improvement in muscle strength also occurs in most patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism and osteomalacia following treatment of the underlying condition (34; 52; 82; 77; 68; 112). In one center's 10-year experience in subtotal parathyroidectomy of hemodialysis patients, myopathic symptoms were present in 89% of patients before surgery and in only 15% of patients after surgery (64).

The rare myopathy associated with hypoparathyroidism improves following correction of the hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia with administration of vitamin D and calcium (135; 136).

Special considerations

Pregnancy

Primary hyperparathyroidism is rare during pregnancy (48). However, women of childbearing age account for 5% to 25% of patients with primary hyperparathyroidism (70). The most serious complications are neonatal death, stillbirth, and miscarriage.

In a review of 73 reported cases of pregnant patients with primary hyperparathyroidism, 45 patients (62%) had detailed clinical histories, and of these, 22% had weakness with premature fatigue or myalgias (70). Twenty-three patients underwent surgery during pregnancy and 18 of them gave birth to healthy children. Fifty women with a total of 79 pregnancies did not undergo surgery and bore 35 healthy children; complications arose in 40 births. Perinatal death occurred in 9% of the operated group and 15% of the nonoperated group. To reduce the risk of complications in both the mother and the child, the authors recommended surgery in the second trimester of pregnancy after the fetal organs have developed and the risk of postoperative miscarriage is less (70).

Pediatric age group

Primary hyperparathyroidism is uncommon in children. Of 1000 patients who underwent parathyroidectomy over a 15-year period, 2.1% were 20 years old or younger (97). The triad of fatigue, weakness, and/or depression was about twice as common in adolescents (67%). Renal stones (52%) and hypercalcemic crisis (5%) were also more common in children, whereas osteopenia and osteoporosis, common in the adults, was not diagnosed in any of the adolescents. Children had higher presenting serum calcium level and lower parathyroid hormone concentration. Like adults, 86% of children had single gland disease and 95% were cured after the first operation.

Anesthesia

The risk of complications with anesthesia and surgery in patients with myopathies related to hyperparathyroidism is considered low, with mortality less than 2% and morbidity less than 4% (22; 92). Although there is general concern for cardiac dysrhythmias in patients with hypercalcemia, one series found no increase in intraoperative ventricular dysrhythmias in patients with calcium levels of 11.6 mg/dL (46). No particular anesthetic or anesthesia technique is known to produce a better outcome in patients undergoing surgery for hyperparathyroidism. Particular consideration should, however, be given when using succinylcholine or atracurium because sensitivity to these substances has been reported in patients with hyperparathyroidism (03). This is especially pertinent when the surgeon wants to preserve the ability to test the recurrent laryngeal nerve (not routinely done by most surgeons) during surgery.

Media

References

01: Akmal M. Rhabdomyolysis in a patient with hypocalcemia due to hypoparathyroidism. Am J Nephrol 1993;13:61-3. PMID 8322842
02: Alarfaj HM, Alrasheed WY, Alsulaiman SA, Almulhem FT, Almaideni MF, Alkuwaity KW. A case report of severe osteomalacia in a young patient after bariatric surgery. Cureus 2021;13(12):e20198. PMID 34909347
03: Al-Mohaya S, Naguib M, Abdelatif M, et al. Abnormal responses to muscle relaxants in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. Anesthesiology 1986;65:544-56. PMID 3777492
04: Ariganjoye R. Pediatric hypovitaminosis D: molecular perspectives ad clinical implications. Glob Pediatr Health 2017;4:2333794X16685504. PMID 28229097
05: Baczynski R, Massry SG, Magott M, El-Belbessi S, Kohan R, Brantbar N. Effect of parathyroid hormone on energy metabolism of skeletal muscle. Kidney Int 1985;28:722-7. PMID 2935672
06: Baker LR, Ackrill P, Cattell WR, Stamp TC, Watson L. Iatrogenic osteomalacia and myopathy due to phosphate depletion. Br Med J 1974;3(5924):150-2. PMID 4843652
07: Bardin T. Musculoskeletal manifestations of chronic renal failure. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2003;15:48-54. PMID 12496510
08: Bastepe M. The GNAS locus and pseudohypoparathyroidism. AdvExp Med Biol 2008;626:27-40. PMID 18372789
09: Beaudart C, Buckinx F, Rabenda V, et al. The effects of vitamin D on skeletal muscle strength, muscle mass, and muscle power: a systemic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014;99(11):4336-45. PMID 25033068
10: Berenbaum F, Rajzbaum G, Bonnchon P, Amor B. Une hyperparathyroide revelee une chute de la tete. Rev Rhum Mal Osteoartic 1993;60:467-9.
11: Bhat M, Kalam R, Qadri S, Madabushi S, Ismail A. Vitamin D deficiency-induced muscle wasting occurs through the ubiquitin proteasome pathway and is partially corrected by calcium in male rats. Endocrinology 2013;154(11):4018-29. PMID 23928374
12: Bhattoa H, Konstantynowicz J, Laszcz N, Wojcik M, Pludowski P. Vitamin D: musculoskeletal health. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2017;18(3):363-71. PMID 28032296
13: Birge SG, Haddad JG. 25-hydroxycholecalciferol stimulation of muscle metabolism. J Clin Invest 1975;56:1100-7. PMID 1184737
14: Boudville N, Inderjeeth C, Elder GJ, Glendenning P. Association between 25-hydroxyvitamin D, somatic muscle weakness and falls risk in end-stage renal failure. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2010;73(3):299-304. PMID 20507339
15: Brink F. The role of calcium ion in neural processes. Pharmacol Rev 1954;6:245-98. PMID 13215068
16: Byrne MF, Razak AR, Leader MB, Sheehan KM, Patchett SE. Disabling osteomalacic myopathy as the only presenting feature of celiac disease. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2002;14(11):1271-4. PMID 12439125
17: Caniggia A. The osteomalacias. Ann Ital Med Int 1991;6(4 Pt 2):476-82. PMID 1668641
18: Carnevale V, Minisola S, Romagnoli E, et al. Concurrent improvement of neuromuscular and skeletal involvement following surgery for primary hyperparathyroidism [letter]. J Neurol 1992;239:57. PMID 1541973
19: Chakrabarti AK, Johnson SC, Samantray SK, Reddy ER. Osteomalacia, myopathy and basilar impression. J Neurol Sci 1974;23(2):227-35. PMID 4427115
20: Chakraborty A, Can AS. Calcium gluconate. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, 2023. PMID 32491395
21: Chou CT, Siegel B, Mehta D. Stridor and apnea as the initial presentation of primary hypoparathyrodism. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2016;80:30-2. PMID 26746608
22: Clark OH, Wilkes W, Siperstein AE, Duh QY. Diagnosis and management of asymptomatic hyperparathyroidism: safety, efficacy, and deficiency in our knowledge. J Bone Miner Res 1991;6(Suppl 2):S135-42. PMID 1763665
23: Courbebaisse M, Lanske B. Biology of fibroblast growth factor 23: from physiology to pathology. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2018;8(5):a031260. PMID 28778965
24: Curry OB, Basten JF, Francis MO, Smith R. Calcium uptake by the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle from vitamin D deficiency in rabbits. Nature 1974;249:83-4. PMID 4833235
25: Dai CL, Sun ZJ, Zhang X, Qiu MC. Elevated muscle enzymes and muscle biopsy in idiopathic hypoparathyroidism patients. J Endocrinol Invest 2012;35:286-9. PMID 21508662
26: Dastur DK, Gagrat BM, Wadia NH, Desai M, Bharucha EP. Nature of muscular change in osteomalacia: light- and electron-microscope observations. J Pathol 1975;117(4):211-28. PMID 1214191
27: Dawale K, Agrawal A. Parathyroid hormone secretion and related syndromes. Cureus 2022;14(10):e30251. PMID 36381723
28: Delbridge LW, Marshman D, Reeve TS, Crummer P, Posen S. Neuromuscular symptoms in elderly patients with hyperparathyroidism: improvement with parathyroid surgery. Med J Aust 1988;149:74-6. PMID 3393114
29: Dematapitiya C, Perera C, Pathmanathan S, et al. Parathyroid carcinoma during pregnancy: a novel pathogenic CDC73 mutation - a case report. BMC Endocr Disord 2022;22(1):259. PMID 36284286
30: Doriguzzi C, Mongini T, Jeantet A, Monga G. Tubular aggregates in a case of osteomalacic myopathy due to anticonvulsant drugs. Clin Neuropathol 1984;3:42-5. PMID 6705322
31: Drakopoulos S, Koukoulaki M, Apostolou T, et al. Total parathyroidectomy without autotransplantation in dialysis patients and renal transplant recipients, long-term follow-up evaluation. Am J Surg 2009;198(2):187-3. PMID 19217601
32: Fitzgerald P. Endocrinology. In: Tierney L, McPhee S, Papadakis M, editors. Current medical diagnosis & treatment. New York: McGraw Hill, 2000:1118-21.
33: Fitzpatrick LA, Arnold A. Hypoparathyroidism. In: De Groot, editor. Endocrinology. 3rd edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1994:1123-35.
34: Floyd M, Ayyar DR, Barwick DD, Hudson P, Weightman D. Myopathy in chronic renal failure. Q J Med 1974;53:509-24. PMID 4462721
35: Frame B, Heinze EG, Block MA, Manson GA. Myopathy in primary hyperparathyroidism: observations in three patients. Ann Intern Med 1968:1022-7. PMID 5646807
36: Franck WA, Hoffman GS, Davis JS, Alpern HD, Olson JE. Osteomalacia and weakness complicating jejunoileal bypass. J Rheumatol 1979;6(1):51-6. PMID 439111
37: Frankenhaeuser B. The effect of calcium on the myelinated nerve fiber. J Physiol 1957;137:245-60. PMID 13449875
38: Frankenhaeuser B, Hodgkin AL. The action of calcium on the electric properties of squid axons. J Physiol 1957;137:218-44. PMID 13449874
39: Garber AJ. Effects of parathyroid hormone on skeletal muscle protein and amino acid metabolism in the rat. J Clin Invest 1983;71:1806-21. PMID 6306055
40: Garci L, King K, Ferrini M, Norris K, Artaza J. 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 stimulates myogenic differentiation by inhibiting cell proliferation and modulating the expression of promyogenic growth factors and myostatin in C2C12 skeletal muscle cells. Endocrinology 2011;152(8):2976-86. PMID 21673099
41: Gelinas DF, Miller RG, McVey AL. Reversible neuromuscular dysfunction associated with hyperparathyroidism [abstract]. Neurology 1994;44(Suppl 2):A348.
42: Gentric A, Pennec YL. Fatal primary hyperparathyroidism with myopathy involving respiratory muscles. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994;42:1306. PMID 7983302
43: Girgis C, Mokbel N, Cha K, et al. The vitamin D receptor (VDR) is expressed in skeletal muscle of male mice and modulates 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) uptake in myofibers. Endocrinology 2014;155(9)3227-37. PMID 24949660
44: Glerup H, Mikkelsen K, Poulsen L, et al. Hypovitaminosis D myopathy without biochemical signs of osteomalacic bone involvement. Calcif Tissue Int 2000;66(6):419-24. PMID 10821877
45: Goldring SR, Krane SM, Avioli LV. Disorders of calcification: osteomalacia and rickets. In: De Groot, editor. Endocrinology. 3rd edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1994:1204-27.
46: Gunst MA, Drop LJ. Chronic hypercalcemia secondary to hyperparathyroidism: a risk factor for anesthesia. Br J Anaesthesiol 1980;52:507. PMID 7387804
47: Guyton A, Hall J. Textbook of medical physiology. Philadelphia: W B Saunders Company, 1996.
48: Habener J, Arnold A, Potts JT. Hyperparathyroidism. In: De Groot, editor. Endocrinology. 3rd edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1994:1044-60.
49: Hajjar K, Hagenacker T. Neuromuscular disorder as initial manifestation of secondary hyperparathyrdoidism – a case report. Eur J Transl Myol 2017;27(1):6100. PMID 28458803
50: Heath H, Hodgson SF, Kennedy MA. Primary hyperparathyroidism: incidence, morbidity, and potential economic impact in a community. N Engl J Med 1980;302:189-93. PMID 7350459
51: Hedman I, Grimby G, Tisell LE. Improvement of muscle strength after treatment for hyperparathyroidism. Acta Chir Scand 1984;150:521-4. PMID 6516674
52: Henderson RG, Russel RG, Ledingham JG, et al. Effects of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol on calcium absorption, muscle weakness, and bone disease in chronic renal failure. Lancet 1974;I:379-84. PMID 4131033
53: Hirata D, Nagashima T, Saito S, Kano S, Minota A. Elevated muscle enzymes in a patient with severe hypocalcemia mimicking polymyositis. Mod Rheumatol 2002;12(2):186-9. PMID 24383910
54: Hirschberg K. Zur kenntnisse der osseomalacie und ostitis malacissans. Beitr Pathol 1889;6:513-24.
55: Hollick MF. High prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy and implications for health. Mayo Clin Proc 2006;81:353-73. PMID 16529140
56: Hower J, Struck H, Tackman W, Stolecke H. CPK activity in hypoparathyroidism. N Engl J Med 1972;287:1098. PMID 4342828
57: Huq MR, Hossain A, Hannan MA, Anwar MB, Khan AM. Proximal myopathy with hypercalcemic crisis and papillary thyroid carcinoma in a 38-year-old female. Cureus 2021;13(12):e20700. PMID 35106237
58: Insogna KL, Bordley DR, Caro JF, Lockwood DH. Osteomalacia and weakness from excessive antacid ingestion. JAMA 1980;244(22):2544-6. PMID 7431592
59: Irani PF. Electromyography in nutritional osteomalacic myopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1976;39:686-93. PMID 993799
60: Jackson CE, Amato AA, Bryan WW, Wolfe GI, Sakhaee K, Barohn RJ. Primary hyperparathyroidism and ALS. Is there a relation. Neurology 1998;50:1795-9. PMID 9633730
61: Jan de Beur SM, Minisola S, Xia WB, et al. Global guidance for the recognition, diagnosis, and management of tumor-induced osteomalacia. J Intern Med 2023;293(3):309-28. PMID 36511653
62: Joborn C, Joborn H, Rastad J, Akerstrom G, Lunghall S. Maximal isokinetic muscle strength in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism before and after parathyroid surgery. Br J Surg 1988;75:77-80. PMID 3337959
63: Joborn C, Rastad J, Stalberg E, Akerstrom G, Ljunghall S. Muscle function in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. Muscle Nerve 1989;12(2):87-94. PMID 2710153
64: Jovanovic DB, Pejanovic S, Vukovic L, et al. Ten years’ experience in subtotal parathyroidectomy of hemodialysis patients. Ren Fail 2005;1:19-24. PMID 15717630
65: Kajitani TR, Silva RV, Bonfa E, Pereira RM. Hypoparathyroidism mimicking ankylosing spondylitis and myopathy: a case report. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2011;66:1287-90. PMID 21876989
66: Katzberg H, Kassardijan C. Toxic and endocrine myopathies. Continuum 2016;22(6):1815-28. PMID 27922495
67: Kikuchi H, Ujiie S, Kanamaru R. Osteomalacia that became symptomatic 13 years after a total gastrectomy. Intern Med 2000;39(5):394-6. PMID 10830180
68: Kissel JT, Mendell JR. The endocrine myopathies. In: Rowland LP, DiMauro S, editors. Handbook of clinical neurology. Vol. 18. Myopathies. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1992:538-41.
69: Kristoffersson A, Bjerle P, Stjernberg N, Jarhult J. Pre- and post-operative respiratory muscle strength in primary hyperparathyroidism. Acta Chir Scand 1988;154:415-8. PMID 3188788
70: Kristoffersson A, Dalgren S, Lithner F, Jarhult J. Primary hyperparathyroidism in pregnancy. Surgery 1985;97:326-30. PMID 3975852
71: Kruse K, Scheunemann W, Baier W, Schaub J. Hypocalcemic myopathy in idiopathic hypoparathyroidism. Eur J Pediatr 1982;138:280-2. PMID 7117292
72: Kumar N, Khwaja GA, Gupta M, Sharma S. Antiepileptic drug induced osteomalacic myopathy with hyperparathyroidism and nephrolithiasis. J Assoc Physicians India 1993;41(11):748-9. PMID 8005939
73: Kutilek S, Plasilova I, Hasenohrlova K, Cerna H, Hanulikova K. Severe hypocalcemia and extreme elevation of serum creatinkinase in a 16-year old boy with pseudohypoparathyroidism type Ib. Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove) 2018;61(2):53-6. PMID 30216183
74: Lafferty FW. Primary hyperparathyroidism: changing clinical spectrum, prevalence of hypertension, and discriminant analysis of laboratory tests. Arch Intern Med 1981;141:1761-6. PMID 7316624
75: Lanska DJ, Ruff RL. Myopathies and myalgias in the aged. In: Barclay L, editor. Clinical geriatric neurology. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1993:294-309.
76: Layzer RB. Disorders of vitamin D and parathyroid hormone. In: Layzer RB, editor. Neuromuscular manifestations of systemic disease. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 1985: 104-15.
77: Lazaro RP, Kirshner HS. Proximal muscle weakness in uremia: case reports and review of the literature. Arch Neurol 1980;37:555-8. PMID 7417055
78: Lencu C, Alexescu T, Petrulea M, Lencu M. Respiratory manifestations in endocrine diseases. Clujul Med 2016;89(4):459-63. PMID 27857512
79: Lian LM, Chang YC, Yang CC, Yang JC, Kao KP, Chung MY. Adult Fanconi syndrome with proximal muscle weakness and hypophosphatemic osteomalacia: report of a case. J Formos Med Assoc 1994;93(8):709-14. PMID 7858457
80: Ljunghall S, Akerstrom G, Johansson G, Olsson Y, Stalberg E. Neuromuscular involvement in primary hyperparathyroidism. J Neurol 1984;231:263-5. PMID 6520619
81: Lu CL, Yeih DF, Hou YC. The emerging role of nutritional vitamin d in secondary hyperparathyroidism in CKD. Nutrients 2018;10(12):1890. PMID 30513912
82: Mallette LE, Patten BM, Engel WK. Neuromuscular disease in secondary hyperparathyroidism. Ann Intern Med 1975;82:474-83. PMID 47234
83: Marsden CD, Reynolds EH, Parsons V, Harris R, Duchen L. Myopathy associated with anticonvulsant osteomalacia. Br Med J 1973;4:526-7. PMID 4148461
84: Mihashi I, Kazuhiro I, Yasuhiro O, Ayako U, Hisato H, Akira T. Normocalcemic primary hyperparathyroidism presenting with muscle weakness and body pain. Intern Med 2021;60(6):953-6. PMID 33250466
85: Miller BS, Dimick J, Wainess R, Burney RE. Age- and sex-related incidence of surgically treated primary hyperparathyroidism. World J Surg 2008;32(5):795-9. PMID 18235984
86: Minisola S, Peacock M, Fukumoto S, et al. Tumour-induced osteomalacia. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2017;3:17044. PMID 28703220
87: Moldovan D, Racasan S, Kasco I, et al. Survival after parathyroidectomy in chronic hemodialysis patients with severe secondary hyperparathyroidism. Int Urol Nephrol 2015;47(11):1871-7. PMID 26377492
88: Morris GS, Landry CL, Grubbs EG, Jimenez C, Busaidy NL, Perrier ND. Greater than age-predicted functional deficits in older patients with primary hyperparathyrpoidism. Endocr Pract 2012;18:450-5. PMID 22784831
89: Moxley R III. Metabolic and endocrine myopathies. In: Walton J, Karpati G, Hilton-Jones D, editors. Disorders of voluntary muscle. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1994:692-4.
90: Muthukrishnan J, Jha S, Modi KD, et al. Symptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism: a retrospective analysis of fifty one cases from a single centre. J Assoc Physicians India 2008;56:503-7. PMID 18846900
91: Nora D, Fricke Becker J, Gomes I. Hypocalcemic myopathy without tetany due to idiopathic hypoparathyroidism: case report. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2004;62:154-7. PMID 15122452
92: Norton JA, Sugg SL. Surgical management of hyperparathyroidism. In: De Groot, editor. Endocrinology. 3rd edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1994:1106-22.
93: Nussbaum SR, Neer RM, Potts JT Jr. Medical management of hyperparathyroidism and hypercalcemia. In: De Groot, editor. Endocrinology. 3rd edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1994:1094-105.
94: Orngreen MC, Arlien-Soborg P, Duno M, Hertz JM, Vissing J. Endocrine function in 97 patients with myotonic dystrophy type 1. J Neurol 2012;259:912-20. PMID 22349862
95: Ota K, Koseki S, Ikegami K, Onishi I, Tomimitsu H, Shintani S. Dropped head syndrome as first manifestation of primary hyperparathyroid myopathy [Article in Japanese]. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 2018;58(3):193-7. PMID 29491336
96: Pappu R, Jabbour SA, Reginato AM. Musculoskeletal manifestations of primary hyperparathyroidism. Clin Rheumatol 2016;35:3081-7. PMID 27815654
97: Pashtan I, Grogan RH, Kaplan SP, et al. Primary hyperparathyroidism in adolescents: the same but different. Pediatr Surg Int 2013;29(3):275-9. PMID 23184264
98: Patten BM, Bilezikian JP, Mallette LE, Prince A, Engel WK, Aurbach GD. Neuromuscular disease in primary hyperparathyroidism. Ann Intern Med 1974;80:182-93. PMID 4811792
99: Pfeifer M, Begerow B, Minne H. Vitamin D and muscle function. Osteoporos Int 2002;13:187-94. PMID 11991436
100: Pilkington TR, Gazet JC, Compston JE, Kennedy C. Musculo-skeletal abnormalities after jejunoileal bypass. Int J Obes 1981;5(5):509-12. PMID 7309333
101: Pointon JJ, Francis MO, Smith R. Effect of vitamin D deficiency on sarcoplasmic reticulum and troponin C concentration of rabbit skeletal muscle. Clin Sci 1979;57:257-63. PMID 113165
102: Potts, JJ. Diseases of the parathyroid gland and other hyper and hypocalcemic disorders. In: Fauci A, Braunwald E, Isselbacher K, editors. Harrison's principles of internal medicine. New York: McGraw Hill, 1998:2228-42.
103: Reis-Filho JS, Paiva ME, Lopes JM. Pathologic quiz case. A 36-year-old woman with muscle pain and weakness. Phosphaturic mesenchymal tumor (mixed connective tissue variant)/oncogenic osteomalacia. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2002;126(10):1245-6. PMID 12385334
104: Renoud A, Ecochard R, Marchand F, Chapurlat R, Szulc P. Predictive parameters of accelerated muscle loss in men-MINOS study. Am J Med 2014;127(6):554-61. PMID 24524994
105: Richardson JA, Herron G, Reitz R, Layzer R. Ischemic ulcerations of the skin and necrosis of muscle in azotemic hyperparathyroidism. Ann Intern Med 1969;71:129-38. PMID 4892965
106: Rico H, Gomez-Castresana F, Hernandez ER, Matute JA, Torrubiano J, Nunez-Torron M. Adult hypophosphatemic osteomalacia: report of two cases. Clin Rheumatol 1985;4(3):325-34. PMID 3840730
107: Roca B, Minguez C, Saez-Royuela A, Simon E. Dementia, myopathy, and idiopathic hyperparathyroidism [letter]. Postgrad Med J 1995;71:702. PMID 7494783
108: Rodolico C, Bonanno C, Pugliese A, Nicocia G, Benvenga S, Toscano A. Endocrine myopathies: clinical and histopathological features of the major forms. Acta Myol 2020;39:130-5. PMID 33305169
109: Romagnoli C, Brandi ML. Muscle physiopathology in parathyroid hormone disorders. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021;8:764346. PMID 34746197
110: Ronin DI, Wu Y, Sahgal V, MacLean IC. Intractable muscle pain syndrome, osteomalacia, and axonopathy in long-term use of phenytoin. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1991;72(10):755-8. PMID 1929800
111: Rowland LP, Blake DM, Hirano M, et al. Clinical syndromes associated with ragged red fibers. Rev Neurol 1991;147:467-73. PMID 1962052
112: Russell JA. Osteomalacic myopathy. Muscle Nerve 1994;17:578-80. PMID 8196699
113: Rymanowski JV, Twydell PT. Treatable dropped head syndrome in hyperparathyroidism. Muscle Nerve 2009;39(3):409-10. PMID 19208408
114: Saraff V, Nadar R, Högler W. New developments in the treatment of X-linked hypophosphataemia: implications for clinical management. Paediatr Drugs 2020;22(2):113-21. PMID 31965544
115: Schimrigk K, Lassmann R, Stroder J. Morphological and morphometric studies of the skeletal muscles of rachitic rats. Z Kinderheilkd 1975;119(4):235-43. PMID 1136538
116: Schott GD, Wills MR. Muscle weakness in osteomalacia. Lancet 1976;1(7960):626-9. PMID 55903
117: Schott GD, Wills MR. Myopathy in hypophosphatemic osteomalacia presenting in adult life. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1975;38:297-304. PMID 1151410
118: Shane E, McClane KA, Olarte MR, Bilezikian JP. Hypoparathyroidism and elevated serum enzymes. Neurology 1980;30:192-5. PMID 7188799
119: Skaria J, Kattyar BC, Srivastava TP, Dube B. Myopathy and neuropathy associated with osteomalacia. Acta Neurol Scand 1975;51:37-58. PMID 1119316
120: Smith R, Newman RJ, Radda GK, Stokes M, Young A. Hypophosphataemic osteomalacia and myopathy: studies with nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Clin Sci (Lond) 1984;67(5):505-9. PMID 6478751
121: Smith R, Stern G. Myopathy, osteomalacia and hyperparathyroidism. Brain 1967;90:593-602. PMID 6058144
122: Smith R, Stern G. Muscular weakness in osteomalacia and hyperparathyroidism. J Neurol Sci 1969;8:511-20. PMID 5807287
123: Smogorzewski M, Piskorska G, Borum PR, Massry SG. Chronic renal failure, parathyroid hormone and fatty acids oxidation in skeletal muscle. Kidney Int 1988;33(2):555-60. PMID 33305169
124: Snowdon JA, Macfie AC, Pearce JB. Hypocalcemic myopathy and parathyroid psychosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1976;38:48-52. PMID 1255212
125: Srisuwarn P, Disthabanchong S. Role of parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related protein in protein-energy malnutrition. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed) 2023;28(8):167. PMID 37664938
126: Stockton K, Mengersen K, Paratz J, Kandiah D, Bennel K. Effect of vitamin D supplementation on muscle strength: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int 2011;22(3):859-71. PMID 20924748
127: Syriou V, Kolitsa A, Pantazi L, Pikazis D. Hypoparathyroidism in a patient presenting with severe myopathy and skin rash. Case report and review of the literature. Hormones (Athens) 2005;4(3):161-4. PMID 16613826
128: Turken SA, Cafferty M, Silverberg SJ, et al. Neuromuscular involvement in mild, asymptomatic, primary hyperparathyroidism. Am J Med 1989;87:553-7. PMID 2816971
129: Ubogu EE, Ruff RL, Kaminski HJ. Endocrine myopathies (hyper- and hypofunctioning of adrenal, thyroid, pituitary, and parathyroid glands and iatrogenic steroid myopathy). In: Engel AG, Franzini-Armstrong C, editors. Myology. 3rd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc, 2004:1713-38.
130: van der Heyden JJ, Verrips A, ter Laak HJ, Otten B, Fiselier T. Hypovitaminosis D-related myopathy in immigrant teenagers. Neuropediatrics 2004;35:290-2. PMID 15534762
131: Vicale CT. The diagnostic features of a muscular syndrome resulting from hyperparathyroidism, osteomalacia, owing to renal tubular acidosis, and perhaps to related disorders of calcium metabolism. Trans Am Neurol Assoc 1949;74:143-7.
132: Von Recklinghausen F. Die fibrose oder deformier-ende ostitis, die osteomalacie und osteoplastische carcinose in ihren gegensetigen beziehungen. Frestscht Rudolph Virchow zu Seinem 71. Gegurtstag. Berlin: G Reimer, 1891:1-89.
133: Walters RO. Idiopathic hypoparathyroidism and extrapyramidal and myopathic features. Arch Dis Child 1979;54:236-8. PMID 434913
134: Wersall-Robertson E, Hamberger B, Ehren H. Increase in muscular strength following surgery for primary hyperparathyroidism. Acta Med Scand 1986;220:233-5. PMID 3776698
135: Wolf SM, Lusk W, Weisberg L. Hypocalcemic myopathy. Bull Los Angeles Neurol Soc 1972;37:167-77. PMID 4342168
136: Yamaguchi H, Okamoto K, Shooji M, Morimatsu M, Hirai S. Muscle histology of hypocalcemic myopathy in hypoparathyroidism [letter]. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1987;50:817-8. PMID 3612163
137: Younis E, Jarrah N, Sroujieh AS, Al Hadidy A, Ajlouni K. Tertiary hyperparathyroidism after high-dose phosphate therapy in adult-onset hypophosphatemic osteomalacia. Endocr Pract 2001;7(5):375-8. PMID 11585374
138: Zambelis T, Licomanos D, Leonardos A, Potagas C. Neuromyotonia in idiopathic hypoparathyroidism. Neurol Sci 2009;30(6):495-7. PMID 19768367

Contributors

All contributors' financial relationships have been reviewed and mitigated to ensure that this and every other article is free from commercial bias.

Author

Douglas J Lanska MD MS MSPH

Dr. Lanska of the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health and the Medical College of Wisconsin has no relevant financial relationships to disclose.
See Profile

Former Authors

Richard J Barohn MD
Anthony A Amato MD
Henry J Kaminski MD
Glenn Lopate MD
Megan Crone MD
Jean K Mah MD
Emma Ciafaloni MD FAAN

Patient Profile

Age range of presentation: Primary hyperparathyroidism undergoing parathyroidectomy: 6 to 65+ years (Miller et al 2008)
Sex preponderance: female>male, >23:1 in primary hyperparathyroidism undergoing parathyroidectomy (Miller et al 2008)

female>male, >1:1
Heredity: heredity may be a factor
Population groups selectively affected: none selectively affected
Occupation groups selectively affected: none selectively affected

ICD & OMIM codes

ICD-10: Myopathy in endocrine diseases: G73.5
ICD-11: Myopathy in certain specified endocrine disease: 8C83
OMIM: Multiple endocrine neoplasia, type I; MEN1: #131100

GNAS complex locus, antisense transcript 1; GNASAS1: *610540

This is an article preview.
Start a Free Account
to access the full version.

Nearly 3,000 illustrations, including video clips of neurologic disorders.
Every article is reviewed by our esteemed Editorial Board for accuracy and currency.
Full spectrum of neurology in 1,200 comprehensive articles.
Listen to MedLink on the go with Audio versions of each article.

Questions or Comment?

MedLink®, LLC

3525 Del Mar Heights Rd, Ste 304
San Diego, CA 92130-2122

Toll Free (U.S. + Canada): 800-452-2400

US Number: +1-619-640-4660

Support: service@medlink.com

Editor: editor@medlink.com

ISSN: 2831-9125

Myopathies associated with parathyroid disorders

Associated Disorders

Calciphylaxis
Chronic renal failure
DiGeorge Syndrome
Hemochromatosis
Osteitis fibrosa cystica
- Osteomalacia
- Parathyroid adenocarcinoma
- Parathyroid adenoma
- Wilson disease

Differential Diagnosis

hyperthyroidism
hypothyroidism
corticosteroid myopathies
polymyositis
dermatomyositis
- spinal muscular atrophy
- limb-girdle muscular dystrophies
- myasthenic syndrome
- Lambert-Eaton syndrome
- myasthenia gravis
- amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Myopathies associated with parathyroid disorders

Introduction

Overview

Key points

Historical note and terminology

Clinical manifestations

Presentation and course

Table 1. Clinical Manifestations of Osteomalacia

Prognosis and complications

Clinical vignette

Biological basis

Etiology and pathogenesis

Table 2. Causes of Osteomalacia

Epidemiology

Prevention

Differential diagnosis

Confusing conditions

Table 3. Differential Diagnosis for Osteomalacia

Diagnostic workup

Table 4. Blood Studies in Metabolic Bone Diseases

Table 5. X-Ray Changes of Osteomalacia

Management

Outcomes

Special considerations

Pregnancy

Pediatric age group

Anesthesia

Media

References

Contributors

Author

Former Authors

Patient Profile

ICD & OMIM codes

This is an article preview. Start a Free Account to access the full version.

Questions or Comment?

Also in This Category

Neurogenetics and genetic and genomic testing

Asymptomatic hyperCKemia

Limb-girdle muscular dystrophies

Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia

Drug-induced myasthenic syndromes

Distal myopathies

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

ALS-like disorders of the Western Pacific

This is an article preview.
Start a Free Account
to access the full version.